Product Design and TechnologiesQ&A by dot point

The major design movements and styles and their defining characteristics, designers and influence, including the Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau, the Bauhaus, Art Deco, De Stijl, Modernism, Streamlining, Memphis and Postmodernism, and how movements reflect the values, technology and society of their time.

The effects of technological developments on design and manufacture and on society, including new materials and smart materials, automation and robotics, the global marketplace and global manufacturing, the move to high-technology and digital production, and the social, economic and environmental consequences of technological change for producers and consumers.

The factors that influence the development of products, including user needs, wants and values, function and purpose, the relationship between form and function (form follows function and form over function), innovation and authenticity, market pull and technology push, fashion and trends, cost and quality, and how designers balance competing factors in a design specification.

The work and influence of key designers and design-led companies, including their design philosophy, signature products and impact on industry and consumers (for example Dyson, Apple and Jonathan Ive, Dieter Rams and Braun, Philippe Starck, Charles and Ray Eames, Alessi, and brands such as Under Armour and fashion houses), and how studying past and present designers informs new design.

Aesthetics and the elements and principles of design (form, colour, texture, proportion, balance, symmetry, line and rhythm), how aesthetics affect a product's appeal and value, the relationship between aesthetics, branding and styling, the influence of fashion and culture on form, and how designers control the look and feel of a product.

Anthropometric data (measurements of the human body), the use of percentiles and percentile ranges, primary and secondary data sources, how to choose the appropriate percentile and design limits (design for the 5th to 95th percentile, design for the extreme, design for adjustability or the average), and applying anthropometric data to set product dimensions.

Ergonomics as the fit between a product and the user, covering physical ergonomics (comfort, posture, effort, reach), the human senses and feedback, controls and displays, the role of anthropometric data in ergonomic design, and how good ergonomics improves comfort, safety, efficiency and usability.

Inclusive design and user-centred design (UCD), designing for diversity of age, size and ability, the difference between inclusive design and specialist or assistive design, user research and involving users throughout the process, and how considering a wide range of users improves products and widens the market.

The role of computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM) in modern design and production, including digital modelling and simulation, CNC machining, laser cutting, 3D printing and rapid prototyping, and the advantages and limitations of digital design and manufacture for accuracy, speed, cost and product development.

Methods of joining materials (permanent and temporary, including adhesives, welding, brazing and soldering, mechanical fixings such as screws, rivets and knock-down fittings, and stitching) and methods of applying surface finishes and treatments (painting, powder coating, anodising, galvanising, lacquering, polishing, dip coating) and the reasons each is selected for protection, function or aesthetics.

The scales of production (one-off or bespoke, batch, mass and continuous production), the characteristics of each, how production volume affects tooling, unit cost, labour, lead time and automation, and how a designer matches the scale to the product and market.

Key industrial shaping and forming processes for polymers (injection moulding, blow moulding, vacuum forming, extrusion, rotational moulding), for metals (casting, die casting, forging, press forming) and for timber (laminating, steam bending), including how each process works, the tooling it needs and the scale of production it suits.

The structure and selection of composite materials (matrix and reinforcement, for example GRP, CFRP, concrete, plywood), the behaviour of smart materials that respond reversibly to a stimulus (shape memory alloys, thermochromic and photochromic pigments, piezoelectric materials, electroluminescent and quantum tunnelling materials), and modern or technical materials developed for new functions (graphene, Kevlar, Gore-Tex, precious metal clay, nanomaterials, technical textiles).

Classification of metals into ferrous, non-ferrous and alloys, their common types and stock forms, the properties that distinguish them (strength, ductility, malleability, hardness, conductivity, corrosion resistance), and how alloying, work hardening and heat treatments (annealing, hardening, tempering) are used to change those properties.

Classification, common types, properties and working characteristics of papers and boards (cartridge, bleed-proof, layout, tracing, grammage by weight) and of timbers (hardwoods, softwoods, manufactured boards such as MDF, plywood and chipboard), including conversion, seasoning, stock forms and the reasons each is selected for a product.

Classification of polymers into thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics, their common types, properties and uses, the meaning of recycling codes, and the classification of textiles into natural, synthetic, blended and mixed fibres with their properties and the construction of fabrics by weaving, knitting and bonding.

Calculating quantities of material and the cost of manufacture, including material and component costs, waste and yield, fixed and variable costs, unit cost, percentage profit and markup, break-even quantity, value added tax (VAT) and how costing informs pricing and the choice of process and scale.

Handling data in design, including collecting primary and secondary data, calculating measures of average (mean, median, mode) and range, presenting data with tables, bar charts, pie charts and line graphs, interpreting graphs and trends, and using statistics and probability to inform decisions about user needs, testing and quality.

Working with scale and ratio in drawings and models, reading and using scales (for example 1:2, 1:5, 1:10 and enlargement scales), calculating areas and volumes for material estimation, using trigonometry and geometry to find lengths and angles, surface area and capacity calculations, and converting between units in a design context.

Tolerance and its role in manufacture (nominal size, upper and lower limits, tolerance band, bilateral and unilateral tolerance), types of fit (clearance, interference, transition), how tolerance affects cost and interchangeability, and the role of quality control and quality assurance including go and no-go gauges in checking parts.

Designing for maintenance, repair and disassembly, including planned and unplanned obsolescence, modular and repairable design, standardised parts and fastenings, design for disassembly to allow material separation and recycling, and the balance between durability, repairability and cost over a product's life.

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) and the stages of a product's life (raw material extraction, manufacture, distribution, use and end of life), the concept of the carbon footprint and embodied energy, sustainable material selection and renewable energy, and how designers reduce environmental impact at each stage of the life cycle.

The social, moral and ethical issues affecting design and manufacture, including fair trade and ethical sourcing, working conditions and labour in global supply chains, the social and ethical responsibilities of designers and companies, inclusive design and consumer protection, and the moral questions raised by consumption, waste and the use of scarce resources.

The 6 Rs of sustainable design (rethink, refuse, reduce, reuse, repair, recycle, and the related ideas of recover and rot) and how each is applied to reduce environmental impact, together with the principles of the circular economy and the contrast with the linear take-make-dispose model.

The systems approach to electronics using input, process and output blocks, the function of common components (switches and sensors such as LDRs and thermistors, fixed and variable resistors, capacitors, diodes and LEDs, transistors as switches, and relays), Ohm's law and basic circuit calculations, and how components are combined to make a working product.

Gear trains and pulley and belt systems for transmitting rotary motion, the calculation of gear ratio and velocity ratio, how gearing changes output speed and torque, compound gear trains, the trade-off between speed and force, and the related ideas of mechanical advantage and efficiency.

Mechanical devices that transmit and convert motion, including the four types of motion (linear, rotary, reciprocating, oscillating), levers and the three classes of lever, linkages that change direction or magnitude of movement, cams and followers that convert rotary to reciprocating motion, and how mechanisms are selected to produce a required movement in a product.

Digital logic and programmable control, including the common logic gates (NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR) and their truth tables, combining gates to make decisions, the role of microcontrollers and PICs in reading inputs and controlling outputs through a stored program, flowcharts to represent control, and the advantages of programmable control over fixed circuits.

Identifying needs and writing a design brief and a design specification, including the design context and client or user, the difference between a brief and a specification, writing measurable and justified specification criteria, the role of research (market, user and product analysis) in informing them, and using the specification to guide and evaluate design.

The iterative design process of generating, developing, modelling and refining ideas, methods of generating and communicating ideas (sketching, annotation, design drawings), the role of physical and CAD models and prototypes in testing ideas, gathering feedback and iterating, and how modelling reduces risk before manufacture.

Planning for production, including production plans and flow charts, the use of jigs, fixtures, templates and patterns for accuracy and repeatability, working drawings and cutting lists, critical path analysis and scheduling, allocation of resources and quality checkpoints, and how forward planning supports efficient and consistent manufacture.

Testing and evaluating products against the specification and with users, methods of testing (function, durability, user trials, destructive and non-destructive testing), objective and subjective evaluation, and the role of standards and legislation (British and international standards, the BSI Kitemark, the CE and UKCA marks, key consumer and safety legislation) in ensuring products are safe and fit for purpose.