How do learning theories explain skill development, and how does one skill affect another?
The learning theories (operant conditioning, observational learning and cognitive learning), the types of transfer of learning, and how a coach maximises positive transfer and limits negative transfer.
A focused answer to OCR A-Level PE on transfer and learning theories: operant conditioning (Thorndike and Skinner), Bandura's observational learning, the cognitive (insight) theory, the types of transfer (positive, negative, zero, proactive, retroactive, bilateral), and how a coach uses them to develop skill.
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What this dot point is asking
OCR wants you to explain the main learning theories (operant conditioning, observational learning, cognitive learning), define the types of transfer of learning, and explain how a coach maximises positive transfer and limits negative transfer.
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
Cognitive learning
Types of transfer
Maximising positive and limiting negative transfer
To maximise positive transfer, the coach highlights the similarities between skills, ensures the fundamentals are secure before progressing, practises in realistic, game-like conditions, and explains how the skills relate. To limit negative transfer, the coach avoids information overload, separates the practice of conflicting skills in time, and corrects errors before they become habits. Positive transfer is most likely when the stimulus and response of the two skills are similar.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of OCR exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
OCR 20184 marksExplain how a coach could use operant conditioning to develop a tennis serve, referring to reinforcement.Show worked answer →
A Component 02 Section A application question. Marks for the theory and the use of reinforcement applied to the serve.
Award marks for: operant conditioning shapes behaviour through its consequences (Skinner). The coach manipulates the environment so the desired response is likely, then reinforces it. Positive reinforcement (praise, a reward) after a good serve strengthens the stimulus-response bond (Thorndike's law of effect), making the correct action more likely to be repeated. The coach can shape the serve by reinforcing successive approximations (rewarding a good toss, then a good contact, then the full serve), and use negative reinforcement (removing a criticism or constraint once the serve improves). Trial-and-error practice with reinforcement strengthens the bond until the serve is grooved.
Markers reward the consequence-driven nature of operant conditioning and the use of reinforcement to strengthen the stimulus-response bond.
OCR 20218 marksAnalyse the types of transfer of learning and how a coach can maximise positive transfer and limit negative transfer when teaching a new skill.Show worked answer →
A Component 02 extended-response (levels of response) question. Markers reward accurate types of transfer (AO1), application (AO2) and a reasoned strategy (AO3).
Award credit for: positive transfer is when one skill aids the learning of another (an overarm throw aids a tennis serve); negative transfer is when one skill hinders another (a squash swing hindering a tennis swing because of the different wrist action); zero transfer is no effect; proactive transfer affects a skill learned later, retroactive transfer affects a previously learned skill, and bilateral transfer is from one limb to the other. To maximise positive transfer, the coach highlights the similarities between skills, ensures the basics are secure, practises in realistic, game-like conditions, and explains how skills relate. To limit negative transfer, the coach ensures information is not overloaded, separates the practice of conflicting skills in time, and corrects errors before they become habits. A reasoned answer judges that positive transfer is most likely when the stimulus and response of the two skills are similar.
A top answer defines several types of transfer and links coaching strategies to maximising the positive and limiting the negative, reaching a judgement.
Related dot points
- The characteristics of skill and the classification of skills on continua (open-closed, gross-fine, discrete-serial-continuous, self-paced-externally paced), and how classification informs practice.
A focused answer to OCR A-Level PE on the classification of skills: the characteristics of a skilled performance, the main classification continua (open-closed, gross-fine, discrete-serial-continuous, self-paced-externally paced, simple-complex), and how a coach uses classification to choose practice.
- Fitts and Posner's three stages of learning, the shape of learning curves and the plateau, and the information-processing model from input to output including reaction, response and movement time.
A focused answer to OCR A-Level PE on the stages of learning and information processing: Fitts and Posner's cognitive, associative and autonomous stages, the shapes of learning curves and the performance plateau, the information-processing model (input, decision making, output, feedback), and reaction, movement and response time including Hick's law.
- The types of guidance (visual, verbal, manual, mechanical), the types of feedback (intrinsic, extrinsic, knowledge of results and performance), and matching each to the stage of learning.
A focused answer to OCR A-Level PE on guidance and feedback: the four types of guidance (visual, verbal, manual, mechanical) and their strengths and limits, the types of feedback (intrinsic, extrinsic, positive, negative, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance), and how a coach matches each to the stage of learning.
- The multi-store memory model (short-term sensory store, short-term memory, long-term memory), selective attention, and the strategies that improve the storage and retrieval of motor information.
A focused answer to OCR A-Level PE on memory models: the multi-store memory model with the short-term sensory store, short-term memory and long-term memory, their capacity and duration, the role of selective attention and rehearsal, and the strategies (chunking, imagery, association) that improve storage and retrieval.
- Self-confidence and self-efficacy (Bandura), Vealey's model of sport confidence, attribution theory (Weiner), and learned helplessness and how to develop mastery orientation.
A focused answer to OCR A-Level PE on confidence and attribution: self-confidence and Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy, Vealey's model of sport confidence, Weiner's attribution model (locus of causality, stability, controllability), and learned helplessness versus mastery orientation.
Sources & how we know this
- OCR A Level Physical Education (H555) specification — OCR (2016)