How did Athenian democracy develop from Solon to Pericles?
Democracy and the Athenians: the development of Athenian democracy, the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes, the changes of Ephialtes and Pericles, and the key concepts of demokratia, isonomia and isegoria.
An OCR A-Level Classical Civilisation (H408/34) study of the development of Athenian democracy. Covers the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes, the changes of Ephialtes and Pericles, and the key concepts of demokratia, isonomia and isegoria, using sources such as Aristotle's Athenaion Politeia and Plutarch, with the source and essay skills the paper rewards.
Reviewed by: AI editorial process; not yet individually human-reviewed
Have a quick question? Jump to the Q&A page
Jump to a section
What this dot point is asking
Athenian democracy was not created at a stroke but developed over time. For this Beliefs and Ideas option you must understand the reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes, the changes of Ephialtes and Pericles, and the key concepts of demokratia, isonomia and isegoria. The paper tests precise knowledge (AO1), analysis and evaluation of sources (AO2 and AO3) and your own argument.
The answer
Solon: the early foundations
Cleisthenes: the founder of democracy
Cleisthenes, in 508/7 BC, is often regarded as the true founder of Athenian democracy:
- He reorganised citizens into demes (local units) and ten new tribes, deliberately mixing people from different regions to cut across the old regional and aristocratic loyalties.
- He created (or reformed) the Council of 500 (boule), chosen by lot from the demes, to prepare business for the Assembly.
- He is associated with the principle of isonomia (equality before the law) and with ostracism (a vote to exile a citizen for ten years).
These reforms broke the power of the old factions and gave citizens a structured role in government.
Ephialtes and Pericles: radicalising the democracy
The key concepts
The developing democracy rested on a set of ideals:
- Demokratia: the power (kratos) of the people (demos), the sovereignty of the citizen body.
- Isonomia: equality before the law, a principle associated with Cleisthenes.
- Isegoria: the equal right to speak in the Assembly, so that any citizen could address the people.
These concepts expressed the democracy's claim to be a government of equal, participating citizens, and they recur in the sources praising (and criticising) Athens.
Examples in context
A strong 10-mark idea answer on Cleisthenes would give precise examples (demes, ten tribes, the Council of 500, isonomia) and explain how each advanced democracy.
Try this
Q1. Explain the reforms of Solon and their importance for Athens. You must refer to specific examples. [10 marks]
- What the marker wants. AO1 with AO3: give examples (the cancellation of debt-slavery, the property classes, the role in the courts) and explain how they eased crisis and weakened pure aristocracy, while noting Solon did not create democracy.
Q2. 'Cleisthenes deserves to be called the father of Athenian democracy.' To what extent do you agree? [marked out of 20; real H408/34 tariff is 30]
- Cue. Argue both sides: Cleisthenes built the structural framework (demes, tribes, Council, isonomia), but Ephialtes and Pericles made decisive later changes. Reach a judgement supported by named reforms.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of OCR exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
OCR H408/34 2019 (idea style)10 marksExplain the importance of the reforms of Cleisthenes for the development of Athenian democracy. You must refer to specific examples. [10]Show worked answer →
A 10-mark idea question (AO1 with AO3), answered from your wider knowledge.
Establish the context: Cleisthenes' reforms of 508/7 BC are often seen as the foundation of Athenian democracy.
Give specific examples: the reorganisation of citizens into demes and ten new tribes (cutting across old regional loyalties), the creation of the Council of 500 (boule) chosen by lot from the demes, and the principle of isonomia (equality before the law). Mention ostracism as attributed to him.
Conclude on how these reforms broke the power of the old aristocratic factions and gave citizens a structured role in government.
OCR H408/34 2021 (essay, true tariff 30)20 marks'It was Pericles, not Cleisthenes, who made Athens a true democracy.' To what extent do you agree? [marked here out of 20; the real H408/34 essay tariff is 30]Show worked answer →
The extended-essay type (30 marks live, capped at 20 here). Tests AO1, AO2 and AO3.
For (Pericles). Pericles radicalised the democracy: pay for jury service (and other offices) let poorer citizens participate, and his leadership marked the high point of popular rule; the citizenship law of 451 also defined the citizen body.
Against (Cleisthenes, and others). Cleisthenes laid the structural foundations (the demes, tribes and Council), and Ephialtes' stripping of the Areopagus' powers was a decisive step before Pericles.
Judgement. The top band argues a clear line, for instance that democracy developed cumulatively, Cleisthenes built the framework, Ephialtes removed the aristocratic check, and Pericles made participation real for the poor, so no single figure "made" it alone. Support with named reforms.
Related dot points
- Democracy and the Athenians: the institutions of the democracy, including the Assembly (ekklesia), the Council of 500 (boule), the law courts (dikasteria), the magistracies, and the mechanisms of sortition (the lottery) and ostracism.
An OCR A-Level Classical Civilisation (H408/34) study of the institutions of Athenian democracy. Covers the Assembly (ekklesia), the Council of 500 (boule), the law courts (dikasteria), the magistracies, and the use of sortition and ostracism, using sources such as Aristotle's Athenaion Politeia, with the source and essay skills the paper rewards.
- Democracy and the Athenians: the definition of Athenian citizenship and the citizenship law of 451 BC, the rights and duties of citizens, and the exclusion of women, metics and slaves, and the tension between democratic ideals and social reality.
An OCR A-Level Classical Civilisation (H408/34) study of citizenship and exclusion in democratic Athens. Covers the definition of citizenship and the law of 451 BC, the rights and duties of citizens, and the exclusion of women, metics and slaves, with the tension between democratic ideals and reality, and the source and essay skills the paper rewards.
- Democracy and the Athenians: the central role of rhetoric and persuasion in the Assembly and courts, the role of political leaders, the figure of the demagogue, and the debate over whether persuasion strengthened or endangered the democracy, seen in the Mytilene debate.
An OCR A-Level Classical Civilisation (H408/34) study of rhetoric and political leadership in Athens. Covers the central role of persuasion in the Assembly and courts, the contrast between Pericles and later demagogues such as Cleon, and the Mytilene debate, with the source and essay skills the paper rewards.
- Democracy and the Athenians: the contemporary criticisms of the democracy from the Old Oligarch, Thucydides, Plato and Aristophanes, the charges of mob rule, incompetence and instability, and the evaluation of these criticisms.
An OCR A-Level Classical Civilisation (H408/34) study of the contemporary criticisms of Athenian democracy. Covers the attacks of the Old Oligarch, Thucydides, Plato and Aristophanes, the charges of mob rule, incompetence and instability, and how to evaluate these criticisms, with the source and essay skills the paper rewards.
- Greek Theatre: the City Dionysia festival, its religious dimension in honour of Dionysus, its organisation (the dramatic competitions, the choregoi, the role of the polis), and the social and political functions of drama in democratic Athens.
An OCR A-Level Classical Civilisation (H408/21) study of the City Dionysia and the context of Greek drama. Covers the festival's worship of Dionysus, the dramatic competitions and the choregoi who funded them, the role of the chorus, and the religious, social and political functions of theatre in democratic Athens, with the source and essay skills the paper rewards.
Sources & how we know this
- OCR A Level Classical Civilisation (H408) specification — OCR (2017)
- Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution (Athenaion Politeia) (English translation) — Perseus Digital Library