How do natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics each decide what is right, and how convincing is each?
Paper 2 A study of three ethical theories: natural moral law (Aquinas), situation ethics (Fletcher) and Aristotelian virtue ethics (Aristotle, Foot, MacIntyre), their key features, applications and criticisms.
An Edexcel A-Level Religious Studies Paper 2 guide to the three prescribed ethical theories. Covers natural moral law (Aquinas, the precepts and double effect), situation ethics (Fletcher, agape and the four working principles) and Aristotelian virtue ethics (eudaimonia, the golden mean, Foot and MacIntyre), with their applications and criticisms and the AO2 evaluation the exam rewards.
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What this dot point is asking
Edexcel Paper 2 prescribes the close study of three ethical theories: natural moral law, situation ethics and virtue ethics. For each you must know its key features, how it applies to moral decisions, and its main strengths and criticisms. The exam is evaluation-heavy, so the real task is to compare the theories and judge how convincing each is, often by applying them to the same issue.
The answer
Natural moral law
Strengths: rational, universal and stable; gives clear guidance independent of fickle consequences. Criticisms: it assumes a fixed human telos and a teleological view of nature many reject; the absolute secondary precepts can be inflexible; and it arguably commits the naturalistic fallacy by deriving "ought" from "is".
Situation ethics
Strengths: flexible, person-centred and arguably faithful to Jesus's priority of love over legalism (for example healing on the Sabbath). Criticisms: "love" is vague and hard to operationalise; it can be used to justify acts most find wrong; outcomes are hard to predict; and Pope Pius XII condemned it as the "ethics of the individual situation" that abandons moral law.
Virtue ethics
Modern developments are prescribed: Philippa Foot roots the virtues in human needs and argues they benefit their possessor and others, treating moral goodness like natural goodness in a living thing; Alasdair MacIntyre (After Virtue) argues that modern ethics is in disorder and that virtues are best understood within practices, a narrative of a whole life, and a tradition of community. Criticisms: virtue ethics gives little direct action-guidance in a dilemma; cultures disagree about which traits are virtues; and it can seem circular (the virtuous person does the virtuous act).
Examples in context
A model essay always applies the theories to a shared example, because that is where their differences (rules versus love versus character) become evaluable rather than merely described.
Try this
Q1. Evaluate the view that virtue ethics gives no useful guidance on how to act. [20 marks]
- What the marker wants. An AO2 essay explaining the agent-centred focus on eudaimonia, the golden mean and phronesis (with Foot and MacIntyre), weighing the action-guidance objection against the reply that practical wisdom and role models do guide, and concluding with reasons.
Q2. Explain Aquinas's primary precepts in natural moral law. [8 marks]
- Cue. From the synderesis principle "do good and avoid evil" flow the preservation of life, reproduction, education of the young, ordered society and the worship of God; secondary precepts are reasoned from these.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of Pearson Edexcel exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
Edexcel 201920 marksEvaluate the view that natural moral law is the best approach to ethical decision making.Show worked answer →
A Section C extended essay marked mainly on AO2. The levels reward a balanced case comparing natural law with the rival theories and a justified conclusion.
Explain. Aquinas grounds natural law in the rational pursuit of the primary precept "do good and avoid evil", from which flow the five primary precepts (preservation of life, reproduction, education, society, worship of God) and secondary precepts derived by reason; the doctrine of double effect permits a bad side effect of a good act.
Strengths. It is rational, universal and gives clear, stable guidance independent of consequences.
Weaknesses. It rests on a contested teleological view of nature and a fixed human purpose; it can seem inflexible (absolute secondary precepts); the naturalistic fallacy questions deriving "ought" from "is".
Judge against situation ethics and virtue ethics, and conclude with reasons.
Edexcel 202120 marksAnalyse the strengths and weaknesses of situation ethics as a Christian approach to morality.Show worked answer →
A Section C essay testing AO1 understanding of Fletcher and AO2 evaluation.
Explain. Fletcher's situation ethics makes agape (selfless love) the only intrinsic good; the four working principles are pragmatism, relativism, positivism and personalism, and the six fundamental propositions subordinate all rules to love, so the loving thing in the situation is the right thing.
Strengths. Flexible, person-centred, and arguably faithful to Jesus's priority of love over legalism.
Weaknesses. "Love" is vague and hard to apply; it can justify actions most find wrong; predicting outcomes is uncertain; Pope Pius XII condemned it as the "ethics of the individual situation".
Judge how Christian and how workable it is, and conclude with reasons.
Related dot points
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Sources & how we know this
- Pearson Edexcel A-Level Religious Studies (9RS0) specification — Pearson Edexcel (2016)
- Joseph Fletcher, Situation Ethics (Edexcel Anthology extract) — Pearson Edexcel (2016)