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EnglandPhysical EducationSyllabus dot point

How are motor skills classified and how do these classifications guide the way we practise and teach them?

The classification of skills on continua (open and closed, gross and fine, self-paced and externally paced, discrete, serial and continuous, low and high organisation, simple and complex), and the types and methods of practice and the transfer of skills.

A focused answer to AQA A-Level PE skill acquisition on classifying skills, covering the skill continua, types and methods of practice (massed, distributed, fixed, varied, whole and part) and the types of transfer of skills.

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  1. What this dot point is asking
  2. The skill continua
  3. Types and methods of practice
  4. Transfer of skills

What this dot point is asking

AQA wants you to classify motor skills along the recognised continua, justify where a skill sits, and link those classifications to the most suitable type and method of practice. You also need to explain positive, negative, proactive, retroactive, bilateral and zero transfer of skills.

The skill continua

We place skills on continua because most have features of both extremes.

For example, a basketball lay-up in a game is open (the defenders and play are unpredictable), gross (large muscle groups), externally paced (the timing is dictated by opponents), serial (a sequence of linked subroutines) and relatively complex (much decision-making), whereas a handstand is closed (a stable, predictable environment), gross, self-paced (the gymnast controls the timing) and high organisation (the subroutines flow together and are hard to separate). The crucial exam skill is not just naming the point but justifying it: state the feature of the skill that places it there, because almost every classification question awards marks for the justification rather than the label alone. Each continuum also links directly to how the skill should be practised, which is the bridge to the next section.

Types and methods of practice

The classification of a skill guides how to practise it.

  • Massed practice has no rest between trials, suiting simple, discrete, closed skills and fitter performers.
  • Distributed practice has rest or alternative activity between trials, suiting complex or dangerous skills and beginners.
  • Fixed practice repeats a skill in the same way, suiting closed, self-paced skills.
  • Varied practice changes the situation, suiting open skills so the performer builds a wide range of responses (schema).

Transfer of skills

Transfer is the influence of learning or performing one skill on another.

  • Positive transfer: one skill helps another (a tennis serve aids a volleyball serve).
  • Negative transfer: one skill hinders another (a squash swing disrupting a tennis stroke).
  • Proactive and retroactive transfer: an old skill affecting a new one, or a new skill affecting a previously learned one.
  • Bilateral transfer: transfer from one limb or side of the body to the other.
  • Zero transfer: no effect at all.

Coaches maximise positive transfer by highlighting the similarities between skills, ensuring the first skill is well learned before introducing the second, and practising in realistic conditions, and they limit negative transfer by avoiding teaching conflicting skills together and by clearly explaining the differences. Negative transfer is usually temporary, occurring while the performer adjusts, and it is most likely when two skills share a similar stimulus but require a different response. A balanced answer also notes that bilateral transfer (from a trained limb to the untrained one, such as a footballer's stronger foot helping the weaker) lets coaches develop two-sided ability efficiently.

Exam-style practice questions

Practice questions written in the style of AQA exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.

AQA 20194 marksA games player is learning a hockey dribble. Classify the skill on the open-closed and discrete-serial-continuous continua, justifying your placement, and recommend a suitable method of practice.
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AO2 application requiring justification. Open-closed: the dribble in a game is towards the open end because the environment is unpredictable, with moving opponents and a changing pitch, so the player must adjust constantly. Discrete-serial-continuous: it is towards the continuous (or serial) end because the action repeats with no clear single beginning and end as the player moves. Recommended practice: varied practice, changing the situation and adding defenders, so the player builds a wide bank of responses (schema) to cope with the unpredictable game environment, plus distributed practice for a beginner. Reward placing the skill on each continuum with a justification (not just naming a point) and a practice method that matches the open classification.

AQA 20213 marksExplain, using examples, the difference between positive and negative transfer, and how a coach can promote positive transfer.
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AO1/AO2. Positive transfer is when learning or performing one skill aids the learning or performance of another, for example an overarm throw aiding a tennis serve or a javelin throw, because the movement patterns are similar. Negative transfer is when one skill hinders another, for example a squash swing (wristy, lots of follow-through) disrupting a tennis stroke. To promote positive transfer the coach highlights the similarities between the skills, ensures the first skill is well learned, and practises in realistic, game-like conditions so the transfer is meaningful. Reward a correct example of each type and a practical strategy for promoting positive transfer.

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