Theories of learning including operant conditioning, cognitive (insight) learning, Bandura's observational learning, and the use of reinforcement, the principles of effective practice and the development of schema.

What this dot point is asking

AQA wants you to explain the main theories of learning, operant conditioning, cognitive (insight) learning and Bandura's observational learning, describe the role of reinforcement, and explain Schmidt's schema theory and how varied practice develops schema.

Operant conditioning

The theory derives from Thorndike's laws, which AQA expects you to name: the law of exercise (rehearsing and repeating the S-R bond strengthens it, while disuse weakens it), the law of effect (responses followed by a pleasant outcome are strengthened and those followed by an unpleasant one are weakened) and the law of readiness (the performer must be physically and mentally ready to learn the skill).

Behaviour is shaped using reinforcement. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus (praise, a reward) after a correct response; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus when the response is correct (for example, the coach stops shouting corrections once the action is right). Both make the response more likely to be repeated. Punishment adds an unpleasant consequence and is used to weaken an incorrect response, though it should be used carefully because it can demotivate and create anxiety. The key applied points are that reinforcement must be given immediately after the response to strengthen the bond, and that trial and error with rewarded correct attempts gradually builds the skill.

Cognitive (insight) learning

The cognitive (Gestalt) theory treats the learner as a thinking problem-solver. Rather than building responses by trial and error, the performer perceives and understands the whole problem and uses insight and previous experience to reach a solution. This favours teaching skills as a whole and developing understanding, which makes skills more adaptable.

Observational learning

Schema theory

Schmidt's schema theory argues that we do not store every movement as a separate motor programme but build generalised motor programmes that can be adapted. Each movement provides four sources of information. Two form the recall schema, which initiates a movement: the initial conditions (the environment and body position before the movement) and the response specifications (what is required, such as force, speed and direction). Two form the recognition schema, which evaluates and controls the movement: the sensory consequences (how the movement felt, looked and sounded) and the response outcomes (what actually happened, compared with the intended result). Because schema are built from a wide bank of experiences, varied practice is essential so the performer can adapt the generalised motor programme to new, unpredictable situations, which is exactly why open-skill games players train with varied, game-realistic drills rather than identical repetitions.