How do different types of guidance and feedback improve the learning and performance of skills?
The types of guidance (visual, verbal, manual and mechanical) and their advantages and disadvantages, and the types and roles of feedback (positive, negative, intrinsic, extrinsic, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance).
A focused answer to AQA A-Level PE skill acquisition on guidance and feedback, covering visual, verbal, manual and mechanical guidance and the types of feedback including knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.
Reviewed by: AI editorial process; not yet individually human-reviewed
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What this dot point is asking
AQA wants you to describe the four types of guidance and the advantages and disadvantages of each, match guidance to the stage of learning, and explain the types and roles of feedback, including knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.
Types of guidance
The main drawback of manual and mechanical guidance is that performers can become dependent on it and develop an inaccurate kinaesthetic feel for the movement, so it must be withdrawn gradually. There is a clear distinction to keep: manual guidance involves the coach physically moving or supporting the performer's body (forced response or physical restriction, such as guiding a swimmer's arm through a stroke), whereas mechanical guidance uses a device or apparatus to support or shape the movement (such as a trampoline rig, armbands, or a bowling machine). Both share the dependency and false-feedback risk, but mechanical aids can also build confidence in dangerous skills without a coach physically present.
The choice of guidance should be matched to the stage of learning (linked to the stages-of-learning dot point). In the cognitive stage, clear visual guidance and simple verbal cues dominate because the learner is forming a mental model. In the associative stage, more detailed verbal guidance and knowledge of performance help refine technique. In the autonomous stage, brief verbal cues suffice and the performer increasingly relies on their own intrinsic feel.
Types and roles of feedback
Feedback can also be positive (reinforcing what was correct, motivating beginners) or negative (identifying errors to correct, more useful for advanced performers).
Matching feedback to the learner
A beginner in the cognitive stage needs extrinsic, positive feedback and knowledge of results to know whether the attempt worked and to stay motivated. As the performer improves they can use knowledge of performance and increasingly their own intrinsic feedback, with negative feedback used to fine-tune technique. Feedback should be accurate, immediate enough to be useful, and not so frequent that the performer becomes dependent on it.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of AQA exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
AQA 20194 marksEvaluate the use of manual and mechanical guidance when teaching a beginner a somersault in gymnastics.Show worked answer →
AO3 balanced evaluation. Advantages: manual guidance (physically supporting the gymnast) and mechanical guidance (a twisting belt or harness) build confidence and a sense of safety, allow a dangerous skill to be attempted early, give an early feel for the whole movement, and reduce the risk of injury. Disadvantages: the performer can become dependent on the support, develops an inaccurate kinaesthetic (proprioceptive) feel because the support alters the sensation of the movement, the guidance can interfere with the natural action, and over-use slows the development of independent performance. Conclude with a judgement, for example that manual and mechanical guidance are valuable for safety in the early cognitive stage but must be withdrawn gradually so the gymnast develops an accurate feel. Reward a clear advantage-versus-disadvantage structure plus a justified judgement.
AQA 20214 marksExplain why a beginner and an elite performer benefit from different types of feedback.Show worked answer →
AO1/AO2 comparison. A beginner (cognitive stage) lacks a kinaesthetic sense, so they rely on extrinsic feedback from a coach and on knowledge of results (whether the outcome succeeded) to know if the attempt worked, and they need positive feedback to stay motivated and reinforce correct actions. An elite (autonomous) performer has a well-developed kinaesthetic sense, so they can use intrinsic feedback (how the movement felt) and knowledge of performance to fine-tune technique, and they can use negative feedback constructively to correct small errors. Reward the explicit link between the stage of learning, the kinaesthetic sense, and the appropriate feedback type for each performer.
Related dot points
- The classification of skills on continua (open and closed, gross and fine, self-paced and externally paced, discrete, serial and continuous, low and high organisation, simple and complex), and the types and methods of practice and the transfer of skills.
A focused answer to AQA A-Level PE skill acquisition on classifying skills, covering the skill continua, types and methods of practice (massed, distributed, fixed, varied, whole and part) and the types of transfer of skills.
- Theories of learning including operant conditioning, cognitive (insight) learning, Bandura's observational learning, and the use of reinforcement, the principles of effective practice and the development of schema.
A focused answer to AQA A-Level PE skill acquisition on theories of learning, covering operant conditioning, cognitive (insight) learning, Bandura's observational learning, reinforcement and Schmidt's schema theory.
- Fitts and Posner's three stages of learning (cognitive, associative and autonomous), the characteristics of each stage, and the link to feedback, practice and performance plateaus.
A focused answer to AQA A-Level PE skill acquisition on the stages of learning, covering Fitts and Posner's cognitive, associative and autonomous stages, their characteristics, the feedback and guidance each needs, and the performance plateau.
- Information processing models (Whiting's model), the multi-store memory model of short-term sensory store, short-term memory and long-term memory, reaction time and Hick's law, and strategies to improve retention and response time.
A focused answer to AQA A-Level PE skill acquisition on memory and information processing, covering Whiting's information processing model, the multi-store memory model, reaction time, Hick's law and the psychological refractory period.
Sources & how we know this
- AQA A-level Physical Education (7582) specification — AQA (2016)