How do performers learn movement skills, and what do the main theories say?
Theories of learning (operant conditioning, cognitive, observational and Bandura's model), the stages of learning, and the transfer of learning between skills.
A focused WJEC A-Level PE answer on theories of learning, covering operant conditioning, cognitive and observational learning, Bandura's model, Fitts and Posner's stages of learning, and the types and effects of transfer.
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What this dot point is asking
WJEC wants you to describe the main theories of learning (operant conditioning, cognitive learning, observational learning and Bandura's model), outline the stages of learning, and explain the types and effects of the transfer of learning, with sporting examples and coaching applications.
Theories of learning
Bandura's model
Bandura argued that much learning happens by observing and imitating a model through four processes:
- Attention - the learner must notice the demonstration; the coach makes it clear, attractive and relevant.
- Retention - the learner must remember it; the coach repeats it and stresses key cues.
- Motor reproduction - the learner must be physically capable of copying it; the task is set within their ability.
- Motivation - the learner must want to copy it; reinforcement, praise and the model's success drive this.
A high-status, accurate model and clear cues make imitation more likely.
The stages of learning
Practice and feedback move a learner along the stages; not all performers reach the autonomous stage in every skill.
Transfer of learning
Transfer is the influence of learning or performing one skill on another:
- Positive transfer: one skill aids another because they share movement patterns (an overarm throw aiding a tennis serve).
- Negative transfer: one skill hinders another, often when a familiar response is wrong in the new context (a badminton wrist action interfering with a tennis serve).
- Zero transfer: no effect, where skills are unrelated.
Coaches maximise positive transfer by using lead-up activities and highlighting similarities, and limit negative transfer by making differences clear and avoiding practising conflicting skills together.
Examples in context
Example 1. Video modelling. A diving coach shows slow-motion video of an elite diver, pausing on key positions, so the learner attends to and retains the shape before attempting it. This is Bandura's model applied with modern technology.
Example 2. Lead-up games for positive transfer. A coach uses mini-tennis with a sponge ball so beginners transfer the basic swing pattern to the full game. WJEC uses this to show transfer being engineered through practice design.
Try this
Q1. Define positive reinforcement and give a coaching example. [2 marks]
- Cue. Strengthening a correct response by giving a pleasant stimulus (a reward); for example praising a learner after a good pass.
Q2. Name and briefly describe Fitts and Posner's three stages of learning. [3 marks]
- Cue. Cognitive (beginner, many errors, needs demonstrations); associative (practising, refining, fewer errors); autonomous (well learned, automatic, little conscious thought).
Q3. Explain how a coach can reduce the risk of negative transfer. [2 marks]
- Cue. Make the differences between the skills clear and avoid practising conflicting skills at the same time, so a wrong familiar response is less likely to interfere.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of WJEC exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
WJEC 20186 marksDescribe Bandura's model of observational learning and explain how a coach could use it to teach a new skill.Show worked answer →
Bandura proposed that people learn by observing and copying a model, through four processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
Attention: the learner must focus on the demonstration. The coach makes the model attractive, clear and relevant so the learner attends to the key points.
Retention: the learner must remember what they saw. The coach repeats the demonstration and highlights cues so it can be stored.
Motor reproduction: the learner must be physically able to copy the action. The coach sets a skill within the learner's capability.
Motivation: the learner must want to copy it. The coach uses reinforcement, praise and the model's success to motivate.
A coach uses this by giving a clear, accurate demonstration (live or video) of a high-status model, emphasising key cues, then letting the learner practise with feedback and reinforcement.
Markers reward the four processes (attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation) and a clear coaching application of each.
WJEC 20204 marksExplain, with an example, what is meant by positive transfer and by negative transfer of learning.Show worked answer →
Transfer is the influence of the learning or performance of one skill on the learning or performance of another.
Positive transfer is when one skill helps the learning of another, usually because they share movement patterns; for example, the overarm throw in cricket aids the tennis serve.
Negative transfer is when one skill hinders the learning of another, often when a familiar response is wrong in the new context; for example, the wrist action of a badminton smash interfering with a tennis serve.
A coach maximises positive transfer by highlighting similarities and using lead-up activities, and limits negative transfer by making differences clear and avoiding practising conflicting skills together.
Markers reward a definition and example of each, with the idea that shared movement patterns drive positive transfer.
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