Human BiologyQ&A by dot point

The structure of the SQA Higher Human Biology course assessment (question paper 1, question paper 2 and the assignment), the marks and conditions of each component, and the skills of scientific inquiry assessed throughout.

The stages of aerobic respiration (glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain), the role of ATP, dehydrogenase enzymes and NAD as a hydrogen carrier, and the use of alternative respiratory substrates.

Cell division by mitosis, the control of the cell cycle, cellular differentiation, and the nature and therapeutic and research value of stem cells (embryonic and tissue).

Lactate metabolism during vigorous exercise (the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, oxygen debt and the reconversion of lactate), and the structure, properties and uses of slow-twitch (type 1) and fast-twitch (type 2) skeletal muscle fibres.

Gene expression through transcription and translation, including the structure and roles of mRNA, tRNA and rRNA, RNA splicing of the primary transcript, and how alternative splicing and post-translational modification produce protein diversity.

The sequencing and analysis of the human genome, the role of bioinformatics in comparing sequences, and the use of genomic and pharmacogenetic information in personalised medicine.

Metabolic pathways as integrated, enzyme-controlled chains of reactions (anabolic and catabolic), the role of membranes and cell compartments, and the control of enzyme activity by induced fit, activation energy, and competitive and non-competitive inhibition including feedback inhibition.

Single-gene mutations (substitution including missense, nonsense and splice-site; insertion and deletion causing frame-shift) and chromosome structure mutations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation), and their effects on proteins and phenotype.

The structure of DNA as an antiparallel double helix of nucleotides, the requirements and process of DNA replication by DNA polymerase, and the amplification of DNA by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

The design of clinical trials of vaccines and drugs, including randomisation, the use of placebo and control groups, double-blind protocols, the importance of a large enough sample size for statistical significance, and the phases of testing.

The organisation of the nervous system into the central and peripheral nervous systems, the somatic and autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) divisions, and the converging, diverging and reverberating neural pathways.

Active and passive immunisation, the use of antigens and adjuvants in vaccines, the establishment of herd immunity and the herd immunity threshold, and the difficulties posed by antigenic variation and by vaccine uptake.

The memory system, including sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory, the limited capacity and span of short-term memory, the transfer of information by encoding (rehearsal, organisation and elaboration), and retrieval using contextual and emotional cues.

The non-specific (innate) defences of the body, including physical and chemical barriers, the inflammatory response (the release of histamine, vasodilation and increased capillary permeability), and the action of phagocytes by phagocytosis.

The specific immune response by lymphocytes, including antigens, the action of B lymphocytes (antibody production) and T lymphocytes (destroying infected cells), clonal selection, immunological memory, allergy and autoimmune disease.

The cells of the nervous system (neurons and glial cells), synaptic transmission by neurotransmitters, the removal of neurotransmitters, summation, the roles of endorphins and dopamine, and how recreational and therapeutic drugs affect neurotransmission (agonists, antagonists and effects on reuptake).

The structure and functions of the cerebral cortex, the localisation of sensory, motor and association areas, the specialisation of the two cerebral hemispheres, and the transfer of information between them by the corpus callosum.

Antenatal screening (ultrasound imaging, biochemical marker tests and diagnostic tests such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling), postnatal screening for metabolic disorders such as PKU, and the use of pedigree charts and patterns of inheritance to assess genetic risk.

The control of blood glucose concentration by insulin and glucagon (and the role of adrenaline), the negative feedback maintaining glucose levels, the causes and effects of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and the measurement and health consequences of obesity.

The structure of the male and female reproductive systems, the production of sperm and ova (gametes) and the supporting secretions, and the process of fertilisation.

The hormonal control of sperm production in males and of the menstrual cycle in females, including the roles of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH and the gonadal hormones testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone, and the negative and positive feedback that regulates them.

The biology of controlling fertility, including cyclical and continuous fertility, treatments for infertility (ovulation-stimulating and superovulatory drugs, artificial insemination, IVF, ICSI and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis) and methods of contraception (physical, chemical and surgical).

The pathology of cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis, the formation of atheromas, thrombosis and embolism, the consequences of heart attack and stroke, the role of cholesterol and LDL and HDL, and the genetic and lifestyle risk factors and their control.

The structure and function of the heart and the cardiac cycle, the control of heart rate by the autonomic nervous system and the SAN, blood pressure and its measurement, and the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.