How did Germany move from disunity in 1815 to unification, the failure of Weimar democracy and the Nazi dictatorship by 1939?
The growth of German nationalism and the obstacles to unification, the reasons for unification by 1871, the problems of the Weimar Republic, and the rise to power and consolidation of Nazi rule by 1939.
An SQA Higher History answer on Germany 1815 to 1939, covering the growth of German nationalism and obstacles to unity, the reasons for unification by 1871, the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic, and the rise and consolidation of Nazi rule by 1939.
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What this key area is asking
The SQA wants you to explain how Germany changed from a disunited collection of states in 1815 to a unified empire by 1871, why the Weimar Republic struggled after 1918, and how the Nazis rose to power and built a dictatorship by 1939. This is a European and World option assessed by extended-response (essay) questions, so you must weigh competing factors and reach a judgement.
The growth of nationalism and the obstacles to unity
- Forces for unity. Cultural nationalism (the writings of Fichte, the Grimms), the Zollverein, railways and industrial growth, and a liberal middle class drew the states together.
- Obstacles. Particularism (local loyalty to individual states and rulers), Austrian opposition to a Prussian-led Germany under Metternich's system, and the failure of the 1848 revolutions (the Frankfurt Parliament collapsed when Frederick William IV refused its crown) all slowed unification.
The reasons for unification by 1871
The Austro-Prussian War excluded Austria and created the North German Confederation (1867); the Prussian victory over France led to the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in January 1871, with the Prussian king Wilhelm I as Kaiser. Historians debate how far unification was Bismarck's design ("Bismarck the master planner") and how far it resulted from deeper economic and nationalist forces he exploited rather than created.
The problems of the Weimar Republic
- Versailles imposed reparations (set at 132 billion gold marks in 1921), territorial losses (Alsace-Lorraine, the Polish Corridor) and the "war guilt" clause (Article 231), which the public resented as a Diktat.
- Political instability. Proportional representation produced weak coalition governments and small extremist parties in the Reichstag; the Spartacist rising (1919) and the Kapp (1920) and Munich (1923) putsches showed attacks from both left and right.
- Economic shocks. The hyperinflation of 1923 (the mark fell to billions to the dollar) wiped out middle-class savings, and the Great Depression from 1929 brought mass unemployment (around six million by early 1933) that destroyed faith in democracy.
The rise and consolidation of Nazi rule
- Reasons for the rise. Hitler's leadership and oratory, Nazi propaganda under Goebbels and the SA's organisation, the appeal of nationalism and anti-communism, the Depression, and Weimar's weakness all helped the Nazi vote rise from 12 seats in 1928 to 230 in July 1932.
- The path to power. The Nazis became the largest party in July 1932; conservative politicians von Papen and von Schleicher, believing they could "tame" and control him, persuaded Hindenburg to make Hitler Chancellor on 30 January 1933.
- Consolidation. The Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933) justified the emergency decree suspending civil rights; the Enabling Act (March 1933) gave Hitler dictatorial powers; opposition parties and trade unions were banned by July 1933; the Night of the Long Knives (June 1934) removed the SA leadership and other rivals; and after Hindenburg's death in August 1934 Hitler merged the offices of President and Chancellor as Fuhrer. Terror by the SS and Gestapo, propaganda, and control of education and culture entrenched the dictatorship by 1939.
Examples in context
A strong analytical paragraph on Bismarck might run: "The Franco-Prussian War shows Bismarck's diplomacy at its most effective. By editing the Ems Telegram in July 1870 to make both sides feel insulted, he provoked France into declaring war while ensuring Prussia appeared the victim, which kept the south German states and the other powers on side. The swift Prussian victory, owed to von Moltke's railways and general staff, then let Bismarck proclaim the Empire at Versailles. Yet this triumph rested on the army reforms and economic strength built before he took office, so leadership directed forces it did not create." This makes a point, supports it with precise detail, and analyses Bismarck's importance, which is what SQA rewards.
Try this
Q1. Name the customs union that helped bind the German states economically. [1 mark]
- Cue. The Zollverein.
Q2. Which 1933 law gave Hitler the power to rule by decree? [1 mark]
- Cue. The Enabling Act.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of SQA exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
SQA Higher 201820 marksHow important was the leadership of Bismarck in achieving German unification by 1871?Show worked answer →
SQA marks the essay out of 20 across structure, an introduction with a line of argument, knowledge, analysis and a supported conclusion. The named factor is Bismarck's leadership.
Argue its importance: as Minister-President of Prussia from 1862, Bismarck used "blood and iron", isolated his enemies diplomatically, and engineered the wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1870 to 1871) that produced the German Empire proclaimed at Versailles in January 1871.
Then balance the other factors: Prussian economic strength and the Zollverein, the Prussian army and von Moltke's military reforms, growing nationalism, and Austrian weakness. SQA rewards a judgement that Bismarck's diplomacy was decisive but worked on foundations of Prussian economic and military power.
SQA Higher 202020 marksTo what extent did the Nazis come to power because of the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic?Show worked answer →
A "to what extent" essay needs a weighed judgement. Detail Weimar's weaknesses: the "stab in the back" myth, the Treaty of Versailles, proportional representation producing unstable coalitions, Article 48, the 1923 hyperinflation, and above all the Depression from 1929 (around six million unemployed by 1932).
Then weigh the other factors: Hitler's leadership and oratory, Nazi propaganda and the SA, the appeal of nationalism and anti-communism, and the intrigues of von Papen and von Schleicher who persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor on 30 January 1933. SQA rewards a conclusion that ranks the factors, for example that Weimar's weaknesses created the opportunity that the Depression and elite miscalculation allowed the Nazis to exploit.
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Sources & how we know this
- SQA Higher History Course Specification — SQA (2018)