How is power distributed and exercised between states, and how do sovereignty, globalisation and international institutions shape it?
Power and the international system: state sovereignty, hard and soft power, the balance of power and polarity, globalisation, and the role of international organisations and non-state actors.
How power works in the international system in SQA Advanced Higher Modern Studies. Covers state sovereignty, hard and soft power, the balance of power and polarity, globalisation, and the role of international organisations and non-state actors in shaping how power is distributed and exercised.
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What this key area is asking
International relations turns on power: how it is distributed between states and how it is exercised. This dot point covers state sovereignty, the distinction between hard and soft power, the balance of power and polarity, globalisation, and the role of international organisations and non-state actors. These concepts are the analytical vocabulary for the international essay and for analysing any international issue, so they underpin the whole section.
State sovereignty
The examinable question is how far sovereignty has been eroded. Globalisation, supranational institutions and global problems limit what states can independently do, yet states still control borders, law and force and can withdraw from agreements. A sophisticated answer separates the formal sovereignty of powerful states from the constrained practical sovereignty of weaker ones.
Hard and soft power
Distinguishing the two is examinable and frequently essayed. Hard power is decisive in security and emergencies, but it is costly and can breed resentment; soft power is cheaper and more durable but slow and hard to wield directly. The strongest analyses show that effective states blend them, and judge their relative importance to a given issue rather than asserting one is simply superior.
Balance of power, polarity and globalisation
The balance of power describes how states distribute and check power so none dominates; polarity describes the number of dominant centres, unipolar (one superpower), bipolar (two blocs) or multipolar (several great powers). These concepts frame debates about stability and the shifting international order. Globalisation, the deepening interconnection of economies, politics and cultures, reshapes power by binding states together, empowering markets and global actors, and exposing every state to problems that cross borders, while powerful states also steer globalisation to their advantage.
International organisations and non-state actors
The international system is no longer only states. International organisations (the UN, EU, WTO, NATO) provide forums, rules and collective action, though realists note they reflect the power of leading members. Non-state actors, multinational corporations, NGOs, social movements and terrorist groups, exercise real influence over economies, agendas and security. Recognising this wider cast of actors is part of analysing power at Advanced Higher, and connects directly to the realist-liberal debate over whether the state remains dominant.
Worked example
Try this
Q1. What is the difference between hard power and soft power? [2 marks]
- Cue. Hard power coerces through military and economic force; soft power attracts and persuades through culture, values, diplomacy and example.
Q2. Give one way globalisation constrains the practical sovereignty of a state. [2 marks]
- Cue. Any one of: economic interdependence limiting national economic control, international institutions and law constraining action, or cross-border problems (climate, pandemics) exceeding one state's reach.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of SQA exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
SQA AH (international essay)20 marksTo what extent has globalisation reduced the sovereignty of the nation state?Show worked answer →
A strong essay defines sovereignty and globalisation, argues both sides with evidence, and reaches a judgement rather than describing globalisation.
Define sovereignty as the state's supreme authority over its territory, and globalisation as the growing interconnection of economies, politics and cultures. Argue that globalisation has reduced sovereignty: economic interdependence and global markets limit national economic control, international institutions and law constrain state action, and global problems (climate, pandemics, terrorism) exceed any one state's reach. Then argue it has not: states still control borders, law and force, retain the right to withdraw from agreements, and remain the key actors, while powerful states shape globalisation rather than being shaped by it. Use evidence such as trade rules, supranational bodies and reassertions of national control. Conclude with a judgement, for instance that globalisation has constrained the practical sovereignty of weaker states more than the formal sovereignty of powerful ones. Marks come from argument and evidence.
SQA AH (international essay)20 marksCritically examine the importance of soft power compared with hard power in international relations.Show worked answer →
The marks reward analysis of the two forms of power and a substantiated judgement.
Define hard power (the use of military and economic force or coercion to make others act) and soft power (the ability to attract and persuade through culture, values, diplomacy and example). Argue that hard power remains decisive in security and crises, where force and sanctions shape outcomes, but that soft power increasingly shapes long-term influence, alliances and legitimacy, and is cheaper and more durable. Use evidence such as military and economic coercion versus the global reach of culture, aid and diplomacy. A good answer recognises that the two interact (smart power) and concludes by judging their relative importance, perhaps that hard power decides crises while soft power shapes the wider order, sustaining one line throughout.
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