Ethical and environmental issues: sustainability and food miles; food waste and packaging; ethical labelling and assurance schemes (Fairtrade, organic, free-range, animal welfare); food security; and genetically modified and novel foods, and how these issues influence consumer choice and manufacturing.

A 6-mark answer needs the meaning of each idea and its effect on what consumers buy.

Sustainability is meeting present food needs without harming the ability of future generations to meet theirs. Concern for sustainability leads some consumers to choose foods produced with less environmental harm, such as seasonal and local produce, sustainably sourced fish (for example MSC-certified), and products with less packaging.

Food miles measure how far food has travelled from production to the consumer. A high food-mile product has caused more transport emissions, so environmentally aware consumers may choose local or seasonal foods to reduce this, although air-freighted or out-of-season foods remain popular for choice and convenience.

Assurance schemes guide ethical choice: Fairtrade guarantees producers in developing countries a fair price and better conditions, so consumers who want to support fair treatment choose Fairtrade goods; organic certification means food grown with restricted pesticides and fertilisers and higher welfare, appealing to those concerned about the environment and animal welfare.

Markers reward (1 and 2) sustainability leads to choosing lower-impact foods, (3 and 4) food miles steer some towards local and seasonal produce, and (5 and 6) Fairtrade and organic labels let consumers act on fairness, environmental and welfare concerns.

A 4-mark answer needs two benefits and two concerns, one mark each.

Potential benefits: crops can be modified to resist pests and diseases, reducing the need for pesticides and crop losses; crops can be made to tolerate drought or poor soils or to give higher yields, which could help food security; and foods can be enhanced nutritionally, for example rice enriched with vitamin A.

Concerns: there are worries about possible long-term effects on health and on the environment, such as the spread of modified genes to wild plants; ethical and economic concerns about control of seed by large companies and the dependence of farmers; and consumer mistrust, with many wanting clear labelling so they can choose.

Markers reward any two benefits (such as pest resistance reducing pesticide use, and higher or hardier yields aiding food security) and any two concerns (such as uncertain long-term health or environmental effects, and ethical or economic control issues).