How do functionalism and Marxism, the two great structural theories, explain how society works and why it is unequal?
Synoptic: the structural consensus theory of functionalism (Durkheim, Parsons, Merton) and the structural conflict theory of Marxism (Marx, Gramsci, Althusser), and the debate between consensus and conflict views of society.
An OCR A-Level Sociology guide to functionalism and Marxism, the two structural theories. Covers functionalism (Durkheim, Parsons's value consensus, Merton's manifest and latent functions) and Marxism (Marx's class conflict, Gramsci's hegemony, Althusser's ideological state apparatuses), with the consensus versus conflict debate and the exam skills the theory questions reward.
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What this dot point is asking
OCR Sociology is a theory-led subject, and functionalism and Marxism are the two great structural theories that run through every topic. You need functionalism (Durkheim, Parsons, Merton) and Marxism (Marx, Gramsci, Althusser), and the consensus versus conflict debate between them. These perspectives reappear in families, inequality, crime and the digital world, so mastering them is high-value revision.
The answer
Functionalism: the consensus theory
Durkheim treats society as more than the sum of individuals, studying social facts scientifically and arguing that shared values create social solidarity. Parsons compares society to a biological organism whose institutions (the family, education) meet its functional needs and transmit the value consensus. Merton refines functionalism with the distinction between manifest functions (intended) and latent functions (unintended), and the idea that some institutions can be dysfunctional.
Marxism: the conflict theory
Marxism is a structural conflict theory. Marx argues society is divided into the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labour and are exploited. The economic base shapes the superstructure of institutions (law, education, religion), which serve ruling-class interests. Inequality is maintained by ideology and false consciousness.
Later Marxists develop this:
- Gramsci adds hegemony, the ruling class's ideological leadership that wins the consent of the masses without constant force.
- Althusser distinguishes repressive state apparatuses (police, army, which rule by force) from ideological state apparatuses (education, media, religion, which rule by ideas), both reproducing ruling-class power.
The consensus versus conflict debate
The central debate is consensus versus conflict: functionalists see institutions serving the needs of all and creating solidarity, while Marxists see them serving the powerful and reproducing inequality. Both are structural and both are criticised for being too deterministic, neglecting human agency (the interactionist critique) and gender (the feminist critique).
Examples in context
A top essay sets consensus (functionalism) against conflict (Marxism), uses named theorists, applies examples, and judges, recognising that both are structural and both have limits.
Try this
Q1. Outline two features of a functionalist view of society. [4 marks]
- What the marker wants. Two features (AO1, two marks each): society as a system of interdependent institutions meeting needs, and a shared value consensus creating solidarity (Durkheim, Parsons), each briefly developed.
Q2. Outline and explain two ways in which Marxists argue the ruling class maintains its power. [10 marks]
- Cue. Two developed points: hegemony, ideological leadership winning consent (Gramsci), and the ideological state apparatuses transmitting ruling-class ideas (Althusser), each applied to an institution such as education or the media.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of OCR exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
OCR H580 201910 marksOutline and explain two differences between functionalist and Marxist views of society. [10]Show worked answer →
An Outline and explain question (AO1 and AO2). Each difference needs development and an applied example.
Difference one. Consensus versus conflict: functionalists see society held together by a shared value consensus (Parsons), whereas Marxists see it divided by class conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat (Marx).
Difference two. The role of institutions: functionalists see institutions such as education meeting society's needs, whereas Marxists see them reproducing ruling-class power (Althusser's ideological state apparatuses). The top band applies an example to each.
OCR H580 202120 marksAssess the Marxist view of the role of institutions in society. [20]Show worked answer →
A synoptic theory essay (AO1, AO2 and AO3), shown at the 20-mark cap, marked by levels of response.
For. Marxists argue institutions serve capitalism: Althusser's ideological state apparatuses (education, media, religion) reproduce ruling-class ideology, and Gramsci's hegemony explains consent without force.
Against. Functionalists argue institutions meet society's needs and create solidarity (Durkheim, Parsons); the theory is too deterministic and ignores human agency (interactionist critique) and gender (feminist critique).
Judgement. Marxism powerfully exposes how institutions can reproduce inequality, but a purely conflict view neglects consensus, agency and gender. This balance reaches the top band.
Related dot points
- Synoptic: the feminist theories (liberal, radical, Marxist and difference or intersectional) and the interactionist or social action perspective (Mead, Goffman, Becker), and how each challenges structural consensus and conflict theory.
An OCR A-Level Sociology guide to feminism and interactionism. Covers the feminist theories (liberal Oakley, radical Walby, Marxist, difference and intersectional Crenshaw) and the social action perspective (Mead, Goffman's dramaturgy, Becker's labelling), and how each challenges structural theory, with the exam skills the theory questions reward.
- Synoptic: the debate between modernity and postmodernity, including postmodernist theory (Lyotard, Baudrillard) and theories of late or liquid modernity (Giddens, Beck, Bauman), and the implications for sociology.
An OCR A-Level Sociology guide to the modernity versus postmodernity debate. Covers postmodernism (Lyotard's incredulity towards metanarratives, Baudrillard's hyperreality), late and liquid modernity (Giddens, Beck's risk society, Bauman), and the implications for sociology, with the exam skills the theory questions reward.
- Synoptic: the structure versus agency debate, the question of whether sociology can be scientific and value-free (Weber, Gouldner, Becker), and the relationship between sociology, values and social policy.
An OCR A-Level Sociology guide to the structure versus agency debate and the question of value freedom. Covers structural versus social action theories, attempts to combine them (Giddens's structuration), and the debate about objectivity and values in research (Weber, Gouldner, Becker), with the exam skills the theory questions reward.
- Component 2: theories of social stratification and inequality, including the functionalist, Marxist, Weberian, New Right and postmodernist perspectives on why societies are unequal.
An OCR A-Level Sociology Component 2 guide to theories of social stratification. Covers the functionalist view (Davis and Moore), the Marxist view (Marx, neo-Marxists), the Weberian view (class, status, party), the New Right (Murray, Saunders) and postmodernism (the decline of class), with the theorists, evaluation and exam skills the inequalities paper rewards.
- Component 3 Section B: functionalist explanations of crime (Durkheim's anomie and the functions of crime, Merton's strain theory) and subcultural explanations (Cohen's status frustration, Cloward and Ohlin's differential opportunity).
An OCR A-Level Sociology Crime and deviance guide to functionalist and subcultural theories. Covers Durkheim's anomie and the functions of crime, Merton's strain theory, Cohen's status frustration and Cloward and Ohlin's differential opportunity, with evaluation and the exam skills Component 3 Section B rewards.
Sources & how we know this
- OCR AS and A Level Sociology (H180, H580) specification — OCR (2015)