Biology syllabus, dot point by dot point

4.2.1 Biodiversity: the levels of biodiversity (habitat, species and genetic); how to sample plants and animals (random sampling, quadrats, transects and mark-release-recapture); the calculation and interpretation of Simpson's index of diversity; and the ecological, economic and aesthetic reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

4.2.2 Classification and evolutionary relationships: the binomial system and the taxonomic hierarchy; the five kingdoms and the three-domain classification; the meaning of phylogeny; and how molecular evidence (DNA base sequences, amino acid sequences) and other evidence are used to clarify evolutionary relationships.

4.1.1 Communicable diseases: the range of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protoctists) and the communicable diseases they cause in animals and plants; the means of transmission; the primary non-specific defences of plants and animals; and the role of phagocytes in the non-specific immune response.

4.2.2 Evolution: the process of evolution by natural selection acting on variation; the role of mutation in generating variation; the types of natural selection (directional, stabilising and disruptive); the evidence for evolution from fossils, comparative anatomy and molecular biology; and examples such as antibiotic resistance and industrial melanism.

4.1.1 The immune response: the structure and function of antibodies; the roles of B and T lymphocytes in the humoral and cell-mediated responses; the primary and secondary responses and the role of memory cells; the principles of vaccination and herd immunity; the differences between active, passive, natural and artificial immunity; and the development of antibiotic resistance.

5.1.2 Homeostasis and excretion: the principles of homeostasis and negative feedback; the role of the liver in deamination and detoxification; the structure of the nephron and the processes of ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption; and osmoregulation by ADH acting on the collecting duct.

5.1.4 Hormonal communication: the principles of hormonal coordination and the contrast with nervous coordination; the structure and function of the adrenal glands and pancreas; the control of blood glucose concentration by insulin and glucagon (glycogenesis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis); the second messenger model of adrenaline and glucagon; and the causes of type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

5.1.3 Neuronal communication: the structure of a neurone; the establishment of the resting potential by the sodium-potassium pump; the generation of an action potential by voltage-gated channels (depolarisation and repolarisation); the all-or-nothing principle and the refractory period; saltatory conduction in myelinated neurones; and synaptic transmission by acetylcholine at a cholinergic synapse.

5.2.1 Photosynthesis: the structure of the chloroplast; the light-dependent stage (photolysis of water, photophosphorylation and the reduction of NADP); the light-independent stage (the Calvin cycle, fixing carbon dioxide using RuBP, forming GP and TP and regenerating RuBP); and the effect of limiting factors (light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature).

5.1.5 Plant and animal responses: tropisms and the role of auxin (IAA) in phototropism; the structure and function of the mammalian nervous system (central and peripheral, voluntary and autonomic), the reflex arc and the fight-or-flight response; and the structure and the sliding filament mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction.

5.2.2 Respiration: the four stages of aerobic respiration (glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation); the role of decarboxylation, dehydrogenation, reduced NAD and FAD, the electron transport chain, chemiosmosis and ATP synthase; the synthesis of ATP and the role of oxygen as the final electron acceptor; and anaerobic respiration in animals (lactate) and in yeast (ethanol).

3.1.2 Transport in animals: the structure and functions of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins; the formation of tissue fluid from plasma at the arterial end of a capillary bed and its return at the venous end and via the lymphatic system, explained in terms of hydrostatic and oncotic (osmotic) pressure.

3.1.1 Exchange surfaces: the need for specialised exchange surfaces as size and metabolic rate increase and surface-area-to-volume ratio falls; the features of an efficient exchange surface; the structure and function of the mammalian gas-exchange system, the counter-current system in fish gills, and the tracheal system of insects.

3.1.2 Transport in animals: the structure of the mammalian heart and the events of the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole), the pressure and volume changes that open and close the valves, and the myogenic control of heart rate by the SAN, AVN, bundle of His and Purkyne tissue, including the interpretation of electrocardiograms (ECGs).

3.1.2 Transport in animals: the role of haemoglobin in transporting oxygen, the oxygen dissociation curve and cooperative binding, the Bohr effect, the higher oxygen affinity of fetal haemoglobin, and the transport of carbon dioxide including the formation of hydrogencarbonate ions and the chloride shift.

3.1.3 Transport in plants: the structure and function of xylem and phloem; the cohesion-tension theory of water transport in the xylem and the factors affecting transpiration; the mass flow hypothesis of translocation in the phloem from source to sink; and the adaptations of xerophytes for reducing water loss.

2.1.2 Biological molecules: the properties of water and their importance to living organisms; the structure of monosaccharides, the formation of glycosidic bonds by condensation, and the structure and function of starch, glycogen and cellulose; the biochemical tests for reducing and non-reducing sugars and for starch.

2.1.1 Cell structure: the ultrastructure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, the function of organelles including the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in producing and secreting proteins; the use, calibration and resolution of light and electron microscopes.

2.1.3 Nucleotides and nucleic acids: the semi-conservative replication of DNA and the roles of DNA helicase, DNA polymerase and the complementary base pairing rule; the nature of the genetic code as a triplet code that is degenerate and non-overlapping; the roles of mRNA and tRNA in protein synthesis.

2.1.4 Enzymes: the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions; the mechanism of enzyme action including the lock-and-key and induced-fit models; the effects of temperature, pH, enzyme and substrate concentration on the rate of reaction; the action of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors; the roles of cofactors, coenzymes and prosthetic groups.

2.1.2 Biological molecules: the structure and function of triglycerides and phospholipids; the structure of amino acids, the formation of peptide bonds and the four levels of protein structure; the structure of nucleotides, DNA and RNA; the biochemical tests for lipids (emulsion test) and proteins (biuret test).

2.1.6 Cell division, diversity and organisation: how meiosis produces haploid gametes and generates genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment; the meaning and potential of stem cells (totipotent, pluripotent and multipotent); cell specialisation and the organisation of cells into tissues, organs and organ systems.

2.1.6 Cell division: the cell cycle and its regulation by checkpoints; the main stages of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase) and cytokinesis; the significance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual reproduction; the calculation and use of the mitotic index.

6.1.1 Cellular control: the nature of gene mutations and their effects on proteins; the control of gene expression at the transcriptional level, including operons (the lac operon) and transcription factors; the role of homeobox (Hox) genes in body plan development; and the role of apoptosis (programmed cell death).

6.1.4 Cloning and biotechnology: natural and artificial cloning of plants (including micropropagation and tissue culture) and animals; the use of microorganisms in biotechnology and the conditions in an industrial fermenter; the principles and advantages of using immobilised enzymes; and the asepsis and growth curve of a microbial culture.

6.1.5 Ecosystems and sustainability: the flow of energy through ecosystems (gross and net primary productivity and trophic efficiency); the recycling of nutrients (the nitrogen and carbon cycles); primary and secondary succession; and the principles of managing ecosystems sustainably and conservation.

6.1.3 Manipulating genomes: the principles of DNA sequencing, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis; the use of restriction enzymes and ligase to produce recombinant DNA in genetic engineering; the principles of gene editing; and the use of DNA profiling.

6.1.2 Patterns of inheritance: monohybrid and dihybrid crosses; the inheritance of codominant and multiple alleles, sex linkage and epistasis; the use of genetic diagrams to predict phenotypic ratios; and the chi-squared test to compare observed and expected results.

6.1.2 Populations and evolution: the meaning of a gene pool and allele frequency; the use of the Hardy-Weinberg principle to calculate allele and genotype frequencies; the factors that change allele frequencies (natural selection, genetic drift, the founder effect and migration); and the process of speciation (allopatric and sympatric).