How did the extraordinary commands of Pompey and the wealth of Crassus undermine the Republic's conventions of shared, limited power?
Pompey, Crassus and the politics of the 70s and 60s BC: Pompey's irregular early career and extraordinary commands against the pirates and Mithridates, the wealth and ambition of Crassus, and how their power strained the Republic before the First Triumvirate.
An OCR A-Level Ancient History depth study guide to Pompey and Crassus in the Late Republic. Covers Pompey's irregular early career and extraordinary commands against the pirates and Mithridates, the wealth and ambition of Crassus, the rivalry between them, and how their power strained the Republic's conventions before the First Triumvirate, with evaluation of Plutarch, Cicero and Appian.
Reviewed by: AI editorial process; not yet individually human-reviewed
Have a quick question? Jump to the Q&A page
Jump to a section
What this dot point is asking
After Sulla, the depth study follows the rise of Pompey and Crassus, the two men whose power dominated the 70s and 60s BC. This page covers Pompey's irregular early career and his extraordinary commands against the pirates and Mithridates, the wealth and ambition of Crassus, their rivalry, and how their power strained the Republic before the First Triumvirate. The prescribed sources include Plutarch's Lives of Pompey and Crassus, Cicero's speech On the Command of Pompey, and Appian.
The answer
Pompey's irregular rise
Pompey's irregular rise is the key point: it demonstrated that the rules of the cursus honorum could be bent for a man with armies and reputation, a precedent that mattered for what followed.
The extraordinary commands
The extraordinary commands are the heart of the topic: they show the Republic granting one man powers far beyond the normal limits, a concentration that undermined the principle of shared, limited authority. Cicero's speech On the Command of Pompey defends exactly this.
Crassus, wealth and rivalry
Crassus, the richest man in Rome (enriched by Sulla's proscriptions), built power through wealth, patronage and debt, and through his part in crushing the Spartacus slave revolt. He and Pompey were rivals as much as allies, competing for prestige and influence. The concentration of wealth (Crassus) and military glory (Pompey) in these two men, often outside the normal magistracies, strained the Republic until the First Triumvirate of 60 BC drew them and Caesar together.
The depth-study debate is how far the extraordinary commands weakened the Republic, against the deeper structural problems: the army's personal loyalty to generals, senatorial obstruction, and social and economic strain.
Examples in context
A model answer treats the extraordinary commands as part of a structural breakdown and reads Cicero's speech as advocacy.
Try this
Q1. Assess the importance of Crassus in the politics of the Late Republic before 60 BC. [20 marks, depth essay style]
- What the marker wants. An argument from the sources weighing Crassus's wealth, patronage, debt-based influence and role against Spartacus, and his rivalry with Pompey, against Pompey's military prestige, with a judgement on his importance and source evaluation.
Q2. Which law of 67 BC gave Pompey his command against the pirates? [2 marks]
- Cue. The lex Gabinia, which gave Pompey sweeping authority across the whole Mediterranean to clear the pirates, an extraordinary command voted by the people.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of OCR exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
OCR H407/21 202020 marks'Pompey's extraordinary commands did more than anything to weaken the Republic before 60 BC.' How far do the sources support this view? [shown at the 20-mark cap; the depth essay is worth 36 in the full paper]Show worked answer →
A Section B depth-study essay (AO1, AO2 and AO3), shown at the 20-mark cap (worth 36 in the full paper).
For the view. Pompey's career broke the rules: he held commands and a triumph before the legal age and without the proper offices, and the laws of 67 and 66 BC (the lex Gabinia against the pirates and the lex Manilia against Mithridates) gave him unprecedented, sweeping powers, concentrating military force and prestige in one man.
Against. The wealth and ambition of Crassus, the underlying problems (the army's loyalty to generals, senatorial obstruction, social and economic strain) and the failures of the Senate also weakened the Republic.
Judgement. Argue from Cicero and Plutarch that the extraordinary commands were a major step in concentrating power, but one symptom of deeper structural problems; the top level argues from the sources and judges.
OCR H407/21 202212 marksHow useful is Cicero's On the Command of Pompey for understanding Pompey's position in 66 BC? [shown at the 12-mark source-utility style]Show worked answer →
A source-utility evaluation (AO3) on a prescribed source.
Value. Cicero's speech is contemporary and by a leading politician, valuable for the case made for giving Pompey the eastern command (his reputation, the threat of Mithridates, the demands of the equestrians and traders), and for how extraordinary commands were justified.
Limitations. It is a persuasive speech supporting Pompey, so it presents an idealised case and serves Cicero's own political interests (courting Pompey and the equestrians); it is advocacy, not analysis.
Judgement. Highly useful for the political arguments and Pompey's standing, but as advocacy it must be read for its purpose. Top answers judge usefulness for the enquiry.
Related dot points
- Sulla and the breakdown of Republican norms: the first march on Rome in 88 BC, the civil war with the Marians, the proscriptions, the dictatorship and the Sullan constitution, and the precedents Sulla set for the use of armies in politics.
An OCR A-Level Ancient History depth study guide to Sulla and the breakdown of the Late Republic. Covers the first march on Rome in 88 BC, the civil war with the Marians, the proscriptions, the dictatorship and the Sullan constitutional reforms, and the dangerous precedents Sulla set for the use of armies in politics, with evaluation of Plutarch, Appian and Sallust.
- The First Triumvirate and the rise of Caesar: the alliance of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar in 60 BC, Caesar's consulship and Gallic command, the breakdown of the alliance after Crassus's death, and the crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC that began the civil war.
An OCR A-Level Ancient History depth study guide to the First Triumvirate and the rise of Caesar. Covers the alliance of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar in 60 BC, Caesar's consulship and Gallic command, the breakdown of the alliance after the deaths of Julia and Crassus, and the crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, with evaluation of Caesar, Cicero, Plutarch and Appian.
- Caesar's dictatorship and assassination: his victory in the civil war, his accumulation of powers and honours, his reforms, the motives of the conspirators, and the assassination on the Ides of March 44 BC, with evaluation of the prescribed sources.
An OCR A-Level Ancient History depth study guide to Caesar's dictatorship and assassination. Covers his victory in the civil war, his accumulation of powers and honours (dictator for life), his reforms, the motives of the conspirators led by Brutus and Cassius, and the assassination on the Ides of March 44 BC, with evaluation of Plutarch, Suetonius, Cicero and Appian.
- The Second Triumvirate and the end of the Republic: the alliance of Antony, Octavian and Lepidus in 43 BC, the proscriptions and the death of Cicero, the defeat of the Liberators at Philippi, the breakdown between Antony and Octavian, the propaganda war, and the battle of Actium in 31 BC.
An OCR A-Level Ancient History depth study guide to the Second Triumvirate and the end of the Republic. Covers the alliance of Antony, Octavian and Lepidus in 43 BC, the proscriptions and the death of Cicero, the defeat of the Liberators at Philippi in 42 BC, the breakdown between Antony and Octavian, the propaganda war over Cleopatra, and the battle of Actium in 31 BC, with source evaluation.
- The Roman historians and sources: the methods, strengths and limitations of Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio, Cicero and the documentary sources (the Res Gestae, coins and inscriptions) for the Julio-Claudian period and the Late Republic, and how to evaluate them.
An OCR A-Level Ancient History skills guide to the Roman historians and sources. Covers the methods, strengths and limitations of Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio, Cicero and the documentary evidence (the Res Gestae, coins, inscriptions) for the Julio-Claudian period and the Late Republic, and how to evaluate them for the Roman topics.
Sources & how we know this
- OCR A Level Ancient History H407 specification — OCR (2017)
- Plutarch, Lives of Pompey and Crassus; Cicero, On the Command of Pompey; Appian, Civil Wars — Perseus Digital Library