The process and causes of urbanisation; megacities and world cities; suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation; and urban policy and regeneration in Britain since 1979.

What this dot point is asking

AQA section 3.2.3 opens the urban topic with urbanisation: the process and causes, the emergence of megacities and world cities, the linked processes of suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation, and urban policy and regeneration in Britain since 1979. It is the foundation for the urban form, climate, drainage, waste and sustainability dots.

The process and causes of urbanisation

People move to cities through push factors (rural poverty, lack of services, mechanised agriculture, land pressure) and pull factors (jobs, higher wages, services, education and the perception of opportunity). Urbanisation is now fastest in the developing world (Asia and Africa), where it is producing rapid, sometimes unplanned, city growth.

Megacities and world cities

Megacities and world cities concentrate population, economic power and connections, but megacity growth in poorer countries often outpaces infrastructure, creating informal settlements and service gaps.

Suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation

Within developed cities, population redistributes through three linked processes:

• Suburbanisation: the outward spread of people and activity to the suburbs, driven by car ownership, cheaper land and the desire for space.
• Counter-urbanisation: movement out of cities to smaller towns and rural areas, driven by city push factors, rural pull factors and enabled by transport and teleworking.
• Re-urbanisation: movement back into the inner city, driven by regeneration, employment and the appeal of urban living to younger people.

These produce a cycle of decline and revival in different parts of the city.

Urban policy and regeneration in Britain since 1979

British urban policy has evolved markedly:

• Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) from the 1980s used property-led regeneration to attract private investment to derelict areas (the London Docklands, transformed into Canary Wharf).
• City Challenge (early 1990s) introduced competition for funding between local authorities.
• Partnership schemes brought together public, private and community actors.
• Localism (from 2010) devolved more decision-making to communities and local government.

Regeneration has been physically and economically successful (investment, jobs, transformed environments) but socially uneven: benefits often bypassed original residents through gentrification and unaffordable housing, the central evaluation point.

Try this

Q1. Define a megacity and a world city. [2 marks]

• Cue. A megacity has over 10 million people (defined by size); a world city has global influence over finance, trade and decision-making (defined by connectivity).

Q2. Explain two causes of suburbanisation. [4 marks]

• Cue. Car ownership and transport let people live further out; cheaper land and the desire for larger homes and space pull people to the suburbs.

Q3. Outline one British urban regeneration policy and one criticism of it. [3 marks]

• Cue. Urban Development Corporations (London Docklands) used property-led regeneration; criticism: benefits often bypassed original residents through gentrification.