Antarctica as a global common; the threats from climate change, fishing, tourism, mineral exploitation and scientific research; the Antarctic Treaty System and its protocols; and the role of governance and NGOs in protecting Antarctica.

What this dot point is asking

AQA section 3.2.1 uses Antarctica as the worked example of a global common: the threats it faces (climate change, fishing, tourism, minerals, research), the Antarctic Treaty System and its protocols, and how governance and NGOs protect it. It tests whether you can apply the global-commons and governance concepts to a real, located case.

Antarctica as a global common

Antarctica lies beyond the sovereignty of any single state: although seven countries made historic territorial claims, these are frozen under the Treaty. It is a continent of immense value, holding most of the world's freshwater as ice, regulating global climate and ocean circulation, supporting a unique marine ecosystem built on krill, and offering unrivalled scientific insight into climate history. As a common, it belongs to all humanity and is held in trust.

The threats facing Antarctica

• Fishing: harvesting krill (the base of the food web) and toothfish risks the marine ecosystem if unregulated.
• Tourism: rising visitor numbers bring pollution, wildlife disturbance, the risk of introduced species and accidents.
• Mineral and oil interest: a latent threat, currently banned, but commercially tempting if the ban were lifted.
• Scientific research: even research has a footprint (waste, fuel use, local disturbance), though it is essential and tightly managed.

Antarctica's fragility and slow recovery amplify every pressure.

The Antarctic Treaty System and its protocols

The ATS works by consensus among consultative parties and is widely cited as a successful model of global commons governance: it has kept the continent peaceful, demilitarised and scientifically open for over six decades, banned mining and constrained fishing. NGOs such as the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) monitor compliance and lobby for stronger protection.

How effective is the protection?

The ATS is highly effective within its scope but has clear limits. It cannot address climate change, the biggest threat, because the cause lies outside Antarctica. Enforcement across a vast, remote continent is hard; the mining ban is reviewable from 2048; tourism is only loosely regulated and growing; and consensus decision-making can be slow. So Antarctica's protection is strong against direct exploitation but exposed to global pressures the Treaty cannot reach.

Try this

Q1. State what the Antarctic Treaty (1959) established. [2 marks]

• Cue. It froze territorial claims, banned military activity and reserved Antarctica for peaceful, scientific use.

Q2. Explain why climate change is the most serious threat to Antarctica. [3 marks]

• Cue. It is driven externally and beyond the ATS's control; warming melts ice shelves (raising sea level) and disrupts the krill-based ecosystem.

Q3. Explain the role of the Madrid Protocol. [3 marks]

• Cue. It designated Antarctica a natural reserve for peace and science and banned mineral exploitation (reviewable from 2048).