Statements, arguments and standard form: distinguishing arguments from explanations, descriptions and assertions, identifying premises and conclusions using indicator words, and rewriting an argument in standard form.

What this dot point is asking

Arguments in Action begins with a basic skill: spotting an argument and laying it out so it can be analysed. You must be able to tell an argument from an explanation, description or bare assertion, identify which sentences are the premises and which is the conclusion, and rewrite the whole thing in standard form. Every later skill in this area, judging validity, spotting fallacies, weighing acceptability, depends on getting the argument cleanly onto the page first.

Statements, the building blocks

Only statements can be premises or conclusions, because an argument works by claiming that the truth of the premises gives you reason to accept the truth of the conclusion. A rhetorical question often hides a statement ("Surely no one wants war?" asserts that no one wants war), and in standard form you rewrite it as the plain statement it implies.

Arguments versus the things they resemble

An argument offers reasons for a claim that is in doubt. Three things look similar but are not arguments:

• Explanation. Takes a fact already accepted and gives its cause or reason. "The bridge collapsed because the bolts corroded" explains an accepted collapse; it does not argue that the bridge collapsed.
• Description. Reports how something is without offering reasons for any conclusion. "The castle stands on a volcanic crag overlooking the city" describes; it argues nothing.
• Assertion. A claim stated with no supporting reasons. "Taxes are too high" on its own is an assertion; add a reason ("because they discourage work") and it becomes the conclusion of an argument.

Indicator words

Indicator words are the quickest route into a passage, though they are clues, not guarantees.

• Premise indicators: because, since, for, as, given that, the reason is, firstly.
• Conclusion indicators: therefore, so, thus, hence, consequently, it follows that, which shows that.

In "Since all metals conduct electricity, and copper is a metal, copper conducts electricity", "since" flags the premises and the unflagged final clause is the conclusion. Beware that "since" and "as" can also mean "because of time" rather than "for the reason that", so always check the sense.

Standard form

Standard form is the tidy layout philosophers use to expose an argument's structure:

1. List each premise on its own line, numbered P1, P2, P3.
2. State the conclusion last, marked C or preceded by "therefore".
3. Remove repetition, rhetorical flourishes, examples used only for colour, and any background that is not doing logical work.
4. Make hidden statements explicit, including an unstated premise the argument assumes, so the reasoning is complete.

The point is that once an argument is in standard form you can see exactly what is claimed and test whether the premises really support the conclusion.

Examples in context

Take the passage: "You should learn a second language. It improves your job prospects, and besides, it is good for the brain. Why would anyone pass that up?" The final rhetorical question adds no premise, so it is dropped. In standard form: P1 Learning a second language improves your job prospects. P2 Learning a second language is good for the brain. C Therefore you should learn a second language. The argument is now ready to test: are the premises acceptable, relevant and sufficient for the conclusion? Notice we kept only the two reasons and the claim they support.

Try this

Q1. Why can a question never be a premise or a conclusion? [2 marks]

• Cue. Premises and conclusions must be statements, sentences that are true or false, and a question is neither true nor false.

Q2. Give one premise indicator and one conclusion indicator, and say what each signals. [2 marks]

• Cue. "Because" (or since, for) signals a premise, a reason being offered; "therefore" (or so, thus) signals the conclusion, the claim being supported.