What did the Romans believe, how did religion serve the state, and why were the Romans hostile to Christianity?
Religion and belief in the Roman world: the state gods and worship, the imperial cult, Roman tolerance of foreign cults, and attitudes towards Christianity and its persecution.
An SQA Higher Classical Studies answer on religion and belief in the Roman world, covering the state gods and worship, the imperial cult, Roman tolerance of most foreign cults, and Roman attitudes towards Christianity, including why Christians were persecuted.
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What this key area is asking
In Section 2: Life in the Roman world, Part B: Religion and belief, the SQA wants you to understand Roman religion as a matter of public duty and loyalty, the role of the imperial cult, the Romans' general tolerance of foreign cults, and, crucially, their hostility to Christianity. The "attitudes towards Christianity" theme is a likely essay focus. You need to know the practices and beliefs and to explain why a usually tolerant empire persecuted one faith, which calls for analysis as well as description.
Roman religion as public duty
Roman religion centred on keeping the gods on side:
- The state gods. Jupiter (chief god, with Juno and Minerva in the Capitoline triad), Mars, and many others, honoured with sacrifice, prayer and festivals.
- Priesthoods. Offices such as the pontifices (priests, headed by the pontifex maximus) and the augurs (who read omens) were often held by leading politicians, so religion and politics were intertwined.
- Omens and augury. Public decisions were taken with attention to omens and the gods' will, woven into the calendar and the running of the state.
The imperial cult
The imperial cult, the worship of the emperor's genius (his guiding spirit) and of dead, deified emperors, was a powerful expression of loyalty across a vast empire. It bound diverse provinces to Rome through a shared act of devotion. Refusing to take part was not just irreligious; it could look like political disloyalty, which is central to understanding the clash with Christianity.
Roman tolerance of foreign cults
Cults from across the empire (for example the worship of Isis from Egypt, or Mithras, popular with soldiers) were tolerated or absorbed. The Roman approach was inclusive and additive: more gods could always be honoured. This tolerance is exactly what makes the persecution of Christianity striking and a strong essay question.
Attitudes towards Christianity
Christianity clashed with Roman religion in ways other cults did not, which explains Roman hostility:
- Refusal to sacrifice. As monotheists, Christians would not worship the state gods or the emperor, breaking the pax deorum and looking disloyal, even treasonous.
- Exclusivity. Unlike other cults, Christianity would not blend into the Roman pantheon; it demanded sole allegiance.
- Secrecy and rumour. Christian meetings bred suspicion and false rumours (atheism, cannibalism from misunderstanding the Eucharist, immorality).
- Scapegoating. Christians were blamed for disasters as a sign of the gods' anger, most famously by Nero after the great fire of Rome (AD 64).
Persecution was, for a long time, sporadic and local rather than systematic (Pliny's correspondence with Trajan shows officials unsure how to proceed), before the empire-wide persecutions of the later third century and the eventual toleration under Constantine.
Examples in context
A strong "why hostility" answer explains the clash: "Roman religion was public duty: sacrifice to the gods and the emperor maintained the pax deorum and showed loyalty (knowledge). Christians, as monotheists, refused to sacrifice, which read as disloyalty and broke the bond other cults accepted (analysis). Their exclusivity and the rumours around them deepened suspicion, and Nero's scapegoating after the AD 64 fire shows how Christians could be blamed for disaster (evidence). Roman hostility therefore sprang from Christianity's refusal to honour the state gods and emperor, set against a religion of civic duty, even though Rome was otherwise tolerant (judgement)."
Try this
Q1. What term describes the right relationship with the gods that Roman worship aimed to maintain? [1 mark]
- Cue. The pax deorum (the peace of the gods).
Q2. Which emperor scapegoated Christians after the great fire of Rome in AD 64? [1 mark]
- Cue. Nero.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of SQA exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
SQA Higher (specimen)20 marksWhy were the Romans, usually tolerant in religion, hostile to Christianity? [Classical society, Section 2]Show worked answer →
A 20-mark "why" essay rewards reasons developed with relevant knowledge, organised around a line of argument, with a supported conclusion.
Argue that Rome's hostility flowed from the way Christianity clashed with Roman ideas of religion as public duty. Develop the reasons: Romans saw worship of the state gods and the imperial cult as essential to the safety (the pax deorum, peace with the gods) and loyalty of the empire, but Christians, being monotheists, refused to sacrifice to the gods or to the emperor, which looked like disloyalty and even treason. Christianity was exclusive and secretive: it would not blend into the Roman pantheon as other cults did, and rumours (cannibalism, incest, atheism) made it suspect. Christians were blamed for disasters as a sign the gods were angry, as in Nero's scapegoating after the fire of Rome (AD 64). Yet persecution was usually sporadic and local rather than constant, until later empire-wide persecutions. Conclude that Christianity's refusal to honour the state gods and emperor, its exclusivity and the suspicion it aroused explain Roman hostility, despite Rome's general tolerance.
SQA Higher (specimen)10 marksDescribe the part played by religion in the Roman state. [Classical society, Section 2]Show worked answer →
A "describe" question rewards accurate, organised knowledge with relevant detail.
Explain that Roman religion was a public, civic matter aimed at keeping the gods favourable to Rome (the pax deorum). Describe the state gods (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Mars and others), worship through sacrifice, prayer and festivals, and the priesthoods (pontifices, augurs) often held by leading politicians, so religion and politics overlapped. Describe the imperial cult, the worship of the emperor or his genius (and of dead, deified emperors), which expressed loyalty across the empire. Note Roman tolerance: most foreign cults were absorbed or allowed as long as they did not threaten public order or loyalty. Round off with the role of omens, augury and the calendar of festivals in public life.
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