What are the basic structures and processes of human memory?
The structure and process of memory: encoding, storage and retrieval, and the features of short-term and long-term memory (capacity, duration and encoding).
A focused answer to Edexcel GCSE Psychology Topic 2, covering the structure and process of memory (encoding, storage and retrieval) and the capacity, duration and encoding of short-term and long-term memory.
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What this dot point is asking
Edexcel wants you to describe the structure and process of memory: the three processes of encoding, storage and retrieval, and the features (capacity, duration and encoding) of short-term memory and long-term memory. This underpins the rest of Topic 2, including the multi-store model and the Peterson and Peterson core study, so learn the figures precisely.
The three processes of memory
These three processes happen in order. First the brain encodes incoming information, converting it into a usable code: sounds into an acoustic code, images into a visual code, or meaning into a semantic code. The encoded information is then held in storage. Later, when the information is needed, it is retrieved, either by recall (producing it from memory, as in an essay) or by recognition (identifying it, as in a multiple-choice question). A failure at any stage (poor encoding, lost storage or blocked retrieval) causes forgetting.
Short-term and long-term memory
The capacity of STM can be increased by chunking, grouping items into meaningful units (so the digits 1 9 4 5 become the single chunk "1945"). Information moves from STM to LTM mainly through rehearsal (repeating or processing it), an idea developed in the multi-store model.
Evidence for encoding differences
The difference in encoding is supported by research showing people confuse similar-sounding words in STM (suggesting acoustic encoding) but confuse similar-meaning words in LTM (suggesting semantic encoding). This is why understanding the meaning of material, rather than just repeating it, helps it stick in LTM, linking back to Willingham's point that memory is the residue of thought.
Try this
Q1. What is the approximate capacity of short-term memory? [1 mark]
- Cue. About seven items (plus or minus two).
Q2. Define retrieval. [2 marks]
- Cue. Recovering stored information from memory when it is needed, by recall or recognition.
Q3. Explain one difference in how STM and LTM encode information. [2 marks]
- Cue. STM encodes mainly by sound (acoustic); LTM encodes mainly by meaning (semantic).
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of Pearson Edexcel exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
Edexcel 20183 marksDescribe the three processes involved in memory. (Paper 1)Show worked answer →
A 3-mark Describe item rewards each process named and explained; roughly one mark each.
Encoding is changing information into a form that can be stored, for example turning sounds into an acoustic code or meaning into a semantic code. Storage is holding the encoded information over time in a memory store. Retrieval is recovering stored information when it is needed, by recall (producing it) or recognition (identifying it).
Markers reward encoding (converting information for storage), storage (holding it over time) and retrieval (getting it back). The strongest answers add a short example of each.
Edexcel 20214 marksExplain two differences between short-term memory and long-term memory. (Paper 1)Show worked answer →
A 4-mark Explain item rewards two developed differences, each comparing the two stores.
Capacity: short-term memory holds only a limited amount, about seven items (plus or minus two), so it is easily overloaded, whereas long-term memory has an effectively unlimited capacity. Duration: short-term memory lasts only around 18 to 30 seconds unless rehearsed, so it fades quickly, whereas long-term memory can last from hours to a lifetime. (Encoding also differs: short-term memory is mainly acoustic, long-term memory mainly semantic.)
Markers reward two clear differences (capacity and duration are the easiest), each explained as a contrast rather than two separate facts.
Related dot points
- The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin): the sensory register, short-term and long-term memory, the roles of attention and rehearsal, and an evaluation of the model.
A focused answer to Edexcel GCSE Psychology Topic 2, covering the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin): the sensory register, short-term and long-term memory, attention and rehearsal, and an evaluation.
- The theory of reconstructive memory (Bartlett): schemas, the active reconstruction of memory, and how this leads to distortion of recall.
A focused answer to Edexcel GCSE Psychology Topic 2, covering Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory: schemas, the active reconstruction of memories and how recall becomes distorted.
- Features of short-term and long-term memory and types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde amnesia, and what they show about memory.
A focused answer to Edexcel GCSE Psychology Topic 2, covering the features of short-term and long-term memory and the two types of amnesia (retrograde and anterograde) and what they reveal about memory.
- Core studies: Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts and Peterson and Peterson (1959) on short-term memory duration, including their aims, methods, results, conclusions and evaluation, and the reductionism-holism debate.
A focused answer to the Edexcel GCSE Psychology Topic 2 core studies: Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts and Peterson and Peterson (1959) on short-term memory, with aim, method, results, conclusion, evaluation and the reductionism-holism debate.
- Dweck's mindset theory (fixed and growth mindset, the role of praise) and Willingham's learning theory (the limits of learning styles, the importance of meaning and self-regulation).
A focused answer to Edexcel GCSE Psychology Topic 1, covering Carol Dweck's mindset theory (fixed versus growth mindset and praise) and Daniel Willingham's learning theory (learning styles, meaning and self-regulation).
Sources & how we know this
- Pearson Edexcel GCSE (9-1) Psychology (1PS0) specification — Pearson Edexcel (2017)