The causes and consequences of global inequality; Rostow's and Frank's theories of development; and the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of top-down and bottom-up development strategies and globalisation.

What this dot point is asking

This is Edexcel GCSE Geography B (1GB0) Paper 1, Section B (Topic 2, Development dynamics). Edexcel expects you to explain the causes and consequences of global inequality (social, historical, environmental, economic and political); use Rostow's modernisation theory and Frank's dependency theory to explain how and why countries develop; describe the characteristics of top-down and bottom-up development strategies; explain the role of globalisation and players such as transnational corporations (TNCs) and governments; and weigh the advantages and disadvantages of NGO-led intermediate technology, IGO-funded large infrastructure and TNC investment.

Causes and consequences of inequality

Global inequality (the uneven spread of wealth and wellbeing between countries) has several interlocking causes.

The consequences include the cycle of poverty, large gaps in health and life expectancy, migration from poorer to richer countries, and a continued dependence of poorer countries on exporting low-value primary products.

Two theories of development

Geographers use models to explain why some countries develop faster than others.

The two theories disagree fundamentally: Rostow blames a lack of investment and modern institutions inside poor countries, while Frank blames the unequal global system imposed from outside. Both are useful, and real development usually involves a mix of internal change and external relationships.

Strategies and globalisation

Countries try to develop using strategies that work at very different scales.

• Top-down strategies are large-scale projects planned and funded by governments or inter-governmental organisations (IGOs) such as the World Bank, for example a major dam, power station or motorway. They deliver big infrastructure but are expensive, can cause debt, and may benefit cities and the wealthy first.
• Bottom-up strategies are small-scale projects run with local communities, often NGO-led, using intermediate (appropriate) technology that is cheap, simple and locally maintainable (a hand pump, solar lantern or improved seeds). They reach the poor directly but work at a small scale.

Globalisation, the growing connection of the world's economies, is driven by improving transport and communications, outsourcing, and TNCs that locate factories where labour is cheap. It has helped some countries (for example China and India) grow rapidly through investment and jobs, but others have benefited far less, partly because they rely on low-value exports or lack the infrastructure to attract investment.

Try this

Q1. Describe one difference between top-down and bottom-up development strategies. [2 marks]

• Cue. Top-down strategies are large-scale and funded by governments or IGOs; bottom-up strategies are small-scale, community-led and often run by NGOs.

Q2. Explain how Frank's dependency theory accounts for global inequality. [4 marks]

• Cue. A wealthy core buys cheap raw materials from a poor periphery and sells back expensive manufactured goods, so wealth flows from poor to rich and the periphery stays dependent and underdeveloped.