How do sociologists plan and carry out research?
The research process, including aims, hypotheses, the choice of method, the difference between primary and secondary data and quantitative and qualitative data, and the key concepts of reliability, validity and representativeness.
A focused answer to the AQA GCSE Sociology research methods topic, covering the research process, primary and secondary data, quantitative and qualitative data, and the concepts of reliability, validity and representativeness.
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What this dot point is asking
AQA wants you to understand how research is planned and carried out, the difference between primary and secondary data and between quantitative and qualitative data, and the key concepts of reliability, validity and representativeness. These three concepts are the tools you use to evaluate every method in the topic.
Aims and hypotheses
Research usually begins with an aim (a statement of what the researcher wants to find out) and often a hypothesis: a testable statement or prediction that the research sets out to support or disprove. For example, a hypothesis might be that "girls achieve higher grades than boys". The sociologist then chooses a method suited to the topic, the time and money available, the group being studied and their own theoretical preference (positivist or interpretivist). Choosing the right method is a key decision, because it shapes the kind of data collected and how trustworthy it is.
Types of data
The two distinctions are separate: data can be primary and quantitative (a questionnaire), primary and qualitative (an unstructured interview), secondary and quantitative (official statistics) or secondary and qualitative (a diary). Being able to classify an example on both dimensions is a reliable way to show understanding.
Reliability, validity and representativeness
The crucial point is that reliability and validity can pull in opposite directions. A structured questionnaire is reliable (repeatable, consistent) but may lack validity if people lie or misunderstand. An unstructured interview is valid (deep and true to meaning) but less reliable because it cannot be repeated exactly. Representativeness depends mainly on the sample: a large, well-chosen sample can be generalised, while a small or narrow one cannot. Positivists prioritise reliable, quantitative, representative data; interpretivists prioritise valid, qualitative data that captures meaning.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of AQA exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
AQA 20184 marksExplain the difference between reliability and validity in sociological research.Show worked answer →
A four-mark item: define both terms and contrast them with an example.
Reliability means that if the research were repeated using the same method, it would produce the same results; the method is consistent. Validity means the data give a true, genuine picture of what is really happening.
Develop the point: a method can be reliable but not valid, for example a questionnaire may give consistent answers (reliable) but people may lie, so the data are not true (not valid). Markers reward clear definitions, the contrast and an example.
AQA 20214 marksA sociologist studies 30 pupils from one school and claims the findings apply to all pupils in Britain. Explain why this is a problem, using the concept of representativeness.Show worked answer →
An applied four-mark item: identify the flaw and link it to a concept.
The problem is that a sample of pupils from one school is very small and comes from a single place, so it is unlikely to be representative of all pupils in Britain, who vary by region, class, gender and ethnicity.
Develop the point: because the sample is not typical of the wider population, the findings cannot safely be generalised to all pupils, so the claim is unjustified. The sociologist would need a larger, more varied sample, perhaps using stratified sampling, to generalise. Markers reward the identification of the small, narrow sample and the explicit link to representativeness and generalisability.
Related dot points
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Sources & how we know this
- AQA GCSE Sociology (8192) specification — AQA (2017)