BiologyQ&A by dot point

Photosynthesis as an endothermic reaction, the word and symbol equations, the site of photosynthesis, and the uses of the glucose produced by the plant.

Respiration as an exothermic reaction occurring continuously in living cells, the equations for aerobic and anaerobic respiration, the differences between them, and the uses of the energy released.

The effect of exercise on heart rate, breathing rate and breath volume, why anaerobic respiration occurs during hard exercise, the build-up of lactic acid, and the concept of oxygen debt and its repayment.

The limiting factors of photosynthesis (light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and chlorophyll), the inverse square law for light, and the economics of controlling these factors in greenhouses.

Chromosomes, the cell cycle and mitosis, the role of mitosis in growth and repair, stem cells in embryos, adult tissue and plant meristems, and the uses and issues of therapeutic cloning and stem cell treatments.

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, the sub-cellular structures of animal, plant and bacterial cells, and the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, cell wall, chloroplasts and permanent vacuole.

The differences between light and electron microscopes, how electron microscopy has increased understanding of sub-cellular structures, the magnification equation, and converting between units when calculating real size.

Diffusion of gases and solutes, osmosis as the movement of water across a partially permeable membrane, active transport against a concentration gradient, the factors affecting these, and the importance of surface area to volume ratio and exchange surfaces.

The factors organisms compete for, the difference between abiotic and biotic factors, structural, behavioural and functional adaptations, and the meaning of extremophiles.

The meaning of biodiversity, the effects of human population growth and resource use, pollution of land, water and air, the impact of deforestation and global warming, and the methods used to maintain biodiversity.

The levels of organisation in an ecosystem, feeding relationships and food chains, predator-prey cycles, the carbon and water cycles, and the role of decomposers, with the required practical on sampling.

Trophic levels and the transfer of biomass, the calculation of efficiency of biomass transfer, pyramids of biomass, the impact of food security, and methods of sustainable food production including fish stocks and biotechnology.

The control of blood glucose by insulin and glucagon, the role of the pancreas and liver, the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, and how each is treated.

Hormones as chemical messengers, the comparison of nervous and hormonal coordination, the role of the pituitary as the master gland, and how hormones travel in the blood to target organs.

The hormones of reproduction, the role of oestrogen and testosterone in puberty, the four hormones of the menstrual cycle (FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone), and methods of hormonal and non-hormonal contraception and fertility treatment.

Homeostasis as the regulation of internal conditions, the conditions controlled (blood glucose, temperature and water levels), and the general structure of a control system: receptors, coordination centres and effectors with negative feedback.

The principal glands of the endocrine system (pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovaries and testes), the hormones they release, and the role of thyroxine and adrenaline.

The structure and function of the nervous system, the pathway from stimulus to response, the role of the synapse, the reflex arc and reflex actions, and the required practical on reaction time.

Pathogens as disease-causing microorganisms, the four types (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protists), how each makes us ill, and named examples of communicable diseases caused by each type.

The non-specific defences of the body (skin, nose, trachea, bronchi and stomach acid) and the role of the immune system, including phagocytosis, antibody production and antitoxins.

How monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells, their specificity to one binding site, and their uses in pregnancy tests, diagnosis, research and treating disease, with the advantages and disadvantages.

The ways pathogens are spread (direct contact, water, air and vectors), the named diseases for each route, and the methods used to reduce or prevent the spread of communicable diseases.

How vaccination produces immunity, the action of antibiotics and painkillers, the discovery of drugs, and the stages of preclinical and clinical testing including placebos and double-blind trials.

The Linnaean system of classification, the binomial naming system, how evidence from DNA has changed classification, the three-domain system, and the use of evolutionary trees.

DNA as the genetic material, its structure as a double helix of four bases, the meaning of a gene, chromosome and genome, and how the genome and its interactions are important in medicine and biology.

The terms gene, allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype and phenotype, the use of Punnett squares to predict the outcome of crosses, sex determination, and inherited disorders.

Sexual and asexual reproduction, the formation of gametes by meiosis, the advantages and disadvantages of each type of reproduction, and the role of fertilisation in producing variation.

The process of selective breeding and its risks, the process of genetic engineering and its uses, including genetically modified crops and the production of human insulin, and the ethical issues raised.

The causes of variation (genetic and environmental), the theory of evolution by natural selection, the role of mutation, evidence for evolution including fossils and antibiotic resistance, and how new species form.

Blood as a tissue made of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, the function of each component, and how red blood cells are adapted to carry oxygen.

The definition of health, the difference between communicable and non-communicable disease, risk factors for non-communicable diseases, the effect of lifestyle, the development of cancer, and the interaction of different diseases.

Plant tissues and organs, the structure and function of the leaf, the roles of xylem and phloem, transpiration and translocation, and the effect of environmental factors on the rate of transpiration.

The levels of organisation from cells to tissues, organs and organ systems, the meaning of each level, and how the digestive system is an example of an organ system, including the action of enzymes.

The action of enzymes as biological catalysts, the lock and key model, the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity, the products of digestion, and the role of bile, with the food tests for the required practical.

The structure of the heart and the double circulatory system, the roles of the arteries, veins and capillaries, how the heart rate is controlled, and the structure and function of the lungs in gas exchange.