ChemistryQ&A by dot point

The Bronsted-Lowry theory, strong and weak acids and bases, pH and the calculation of pH for strong and weak acids using Ka and Kw, titration curves and indicators, and the action of buffer solutions.

Amines as bases and nucleophiles, their preparation from haloalkanes and nitriles, the structure and zwitterion behaviour of amino acids, the formation of peptide bonds, and the isoelectric point.

The structure and delocalised bonding of benzene, the evidence for delocalisation, electrophilic substitution reactions including nitration and halogenation, and a comparison of the reactivity of benzene with alkenes and of phenol with benzene.

The structure and reactions of aldehydes and ketones, nucleophilic addition with hydrogen cyanide and reduction, oxidation of aldehydes, and the chemical tests that distinguish aldehydes from ketones.

The acidity and reactions of carboxylic acids, the formation and hydrolysis of esters, acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides as reactive derivatives, and the production of soaps and biodiesel by ester hydrolysis and transesterification.

Partial pressures and mole fractions, the equilibrium constant Kp for gaseous equilibria, calculating Kp and equilibrium amounts, and the effect of temperature, pressure and a catalyst on Kp and the position of equilibrium.

Stereoisomerism including E-Z (geometric) isomerism in alkenes and optical isomerism in molecules with a chiral centre, the rotation of plane-polarised light, racemic mixtures, and the importance of stereochemistry in pharmaceuticals.

Rate equations, order of reaction and the rate constant, determining orders from initial rates and concentration-time graphs, half-life, the rate-determining step, and the effect of temperature on the rate constant.

Lattice enthalpy and Born-Haber cycles, enthalpies of solution and hydration, entropy and the second law, and the use of free energy change to decide the feasibility of a reaction.

Redox titrations using potassium manganate(VII) and iodine-thiosulfate, the calculations involved, colorimetry for coloured ions, and the planning and evaluation of quantitative analysis with attention to uncertainty.

The principles of chromatography including thin-layer and gas chromatography and the use of Rf values, and the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy including chemical shift, the number of environments, integration and spin-spin splitting.

Standard electrode potentials and the standard hydrogen electrode, the electrochemical series, calculating cell potentials, using electrode potentials to predict the feasibility of redox reactions, and the chemistry of electrochemical cells and fuel cells.

Multi-step organic synthesis and reaction pathways, choosing reagents and conditions and improving purity and yield, addition and condensation polymers including polyesters and polyamides, and the disposal and biodegradability of polymers.

The characteristic properties of transition metals, variable oxidation states, the formation and shapes of complex ions, ligand substitution, the origin of colour from d-orbital splitting, and the catalytic behaviour of transition metals.

The mole and the Avogadro constant, molar mass, empirical and molecular formulae, the ideal gas equation, concentrations of solutions, and reacting mass, gas volume and titration calculations including percentage yield and atom economy.

Sub-atomic particles, isotopes and relative masses, the mass spectrometer and relative atomic mass calculations, electron configuration in s, p and d sub-shells, and ionisation energy evidence.

Ionic, covalent, dative covalent and metallic bonding, electronegativity and bond polarity, electron-pair repulsion and the shapes of simple molecules and ions, and the link between structure and physical properties.

Enthalpy changes and standard conditions, exothermic and endothermic reactions, enthalpy of combustion, formation and neutralisation, calorimetry, Hess's law and enthalpy cycles, and mean bond enthalpy calculations.

Dynamic equilibrium and reversible reactions, Le Chatelier's principle and the effects of concentration, pressure and temperature, the role of a catalyst, the equilibrium constant Kc, and applications to industrial processes such as the Haber process.

Van der Waals (London) forces, permanent dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding, how they arise from electronegativity and polarity, and how they explain boiling points, solubility and the anomalous behaviour of water.

Collision theory and activation energy, the effects of concentration, pressure, surface area, temperature and catalysts on rate, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, and how a catalyst provides an alternative pathway of lower activation energy.

Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer, oxidation numbers and the rules for assigning them, identifying oxidising and reducing agents, and constructing and combining half-equations into balanced redox equations.

The classification of alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiary, their production by hydration of alkenes and by fermentation, and their reactions including combustion, oxidation, dehydration and ester formation.

Alkanes as fuels and free-radical substitution, the reactions of alkenes including electrophilic addition and Markownikoff's rule, addition polymerisation, and the nucleophilic substitution and elimination reactions of haloalkanes.

Trends in reactivity, melting point, solubility and thermal stability down Group II, the reactions of Group II metals and compounds, the trends in Group VII including colour, volatility and oxidising power, displacement reactions and tests for halide ions.

Infrared spectroscopy and the absorptions of bonds and functional groups, the fingerprint region, mass spectrometry of organic molecules including the molecular ion and fragmentation, and the use of both to identify and determine the structure of compounds.

IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds, functional groups and homologous series, general, structural, displayed and skeletal formulae, and structural isomerism including chain, position and functional group isomers.

Periodicity of atomic radius, ionisation energy and melting point across Period 3, the structures and bonding of the Period 3 elements and oxides, and the trends in the acid-base character of the oxides.

Tests for cations and anions including carbonate, sulfate, halide, ammonium and hydroxide, tests for common gases, flame tests, and the chemistry behind each observation.