How and why do ethnic inequalities persist, and to what extent are they the result of discrimination?
Component 2: ethnic inequality, including patterns in employment, income and the criminal justice system, the concept of institutional racism, and the theoretical explanations (functionalist, Marxist, Weberian and intersectional) of ethnic disadvantage.
An OCR A-Level Sociology Component 2 guide to ethnic inequality. Covers patterns in employment, income and justice, institutional racism (Macpherson), the host-immigrant model (Patterson), the reserve army of labour (Castles and Kosack), the dual labour market and intersectionality (Crenshaw), with the debate about discrimination and the exam skills the paper rewards.
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What this dot point is asking
OCR Component 2 examines ethnicity as a source of inequality: the patterns (employment, income, the criminal justice system), the concept of institutional racism, and the explanations (functionalist, Marxist, Weberian, intersectional). The key essay debate is how far ethnic inequality is caused by discrimination as opposed to class or other factors.
The answer
Patterns of ethnic inequality
Patterns include higher unemployment and an ethnic penalty (lower pay and slower progression than equally qualified white workers) for some groups, concentration in the secondary labour market, and over-representation in stop and search, arrests and imprisonment. Outcomes vary between ethnic groups, which is itself important evidence.
Institutional racism
The key concept is institutional racism: racism built into the rules, procedures and culture of an institution, rather than just individual prejudice. The Macpherson Report (1999), following the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence and the flawed police investigation, found the Metropolitan Police institutionally racist. This shifted explanation from individual bigots to systemic disadvantage.
Theoretical explanations
- Functionalist (host-immigrant model, Patterson): racism is a temporary result of culture clash and ignorance, fading as groups assimilate.
- Marxist (Castles and Kosack): minorities form a reserve army of labour for capitalism and are scapegoated to divide the working class; Hall's Policing the Crisis shows moral panics about "black crime" used to justify control.
- Weberian (Barron and Norris): minorities have a weaker market situation and are confined to the secondary labour market.
- Intersectional (Crenshaw): ethnicity interacts with class and gender, so disadvantage cannot be reduced to one factor.
The central debate is whether ethnic inequality is primarily caused by discrimination, or also by class and cultural factors, given the variation between groups.
Examples in context
A top essay weighs discrimination (institutional racism, the ethnic penalty) against class and cultural explanations, uses the variation between groups as evidence, and judges.
Try this
Q1. Outline two areas in which ethnic inequality can be seen. [4 marks]
- What the marker wants. Two areas (AO1, two marks each): employment and pay (the ethnic penalty), and the criminal justice system (stop and search, imprisonment), each briefly developed.
Q2. Outline and explain two Marxist arguments about ethnic inequality. [10 marks]
- Cue. Two developed points: minorities as a reserve army of labour for capitalism (Castles and Kosack), and scapegoating that divides the working class (Hall's Policing the Crisis), each applied to an example.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of OCR exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
OCR H580/02 201810 marksOutline and explain two ways in which ethnic minorities may experience inequality. [10]Show worked answer →
An Outline and explain question (AO1 and AO2). Each way needs explanation and an applied example.
Way one. The labour market: some minority ethnic groups face higher unemployment and an ethnic penalty in pay and progression, partly through discrimination, for example being concentrated in lower-paid, insecure work (Barron and Norris's secondary labour market).
Way two. The criminal justice system: some groups are over-represented in stop and search, arrests and imprisonment, which Macpherson linked to institutional racism. The top band applies an example to each.
OCR H580/02 202120 marksAssess the view that ethnic inequalities are primarily the result of discrimination. [20]Show worked answer →
A Section B essay (AO1, AO2 and AO3), shown at the 20-mark cap (worth up to 40 in the full paper), marked by levels of response.
For. Discrimination explanations are strong: Macpherson's finding of institutional racism, the ethnic penalty in employment, and media stereotyping (Hall's Policing the Crisis) show disadvantage rooted in racism.
Against. Other factors matter: Marxists (Castles and Kosack) link disadvantage to class and capitalism's use of a reserve army of labour; Weberians point to the dual labour market; and outcomes vary between ethnic groups, suggesting culture and class also play a part. Intersectional theorists stress ethnicity interacts with class and gender.
Judgement. Discrimination is a major cause but interacts with class and gender, so "primarily" overstates a single factor. This balance reaches the top band.
Related dot points
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Sources & how we know this
- OCR AS and A Level Sociology (H180, H580) specification — OCR (2015)