ChemistryQ&A by dot point

Acids as proton donors, strong and weak acids, bases, alkalis and neutralisation, the reactions of acids with metals, carbonates and bases, salt preparation, and the techniques of standard solutions and acid-base titration.

The Avogadro constant and the mole, molar mass, the ideal gas equation, empirical and molecular formulae, concentration and titration calculations, and percentage yield and atom economy.

Sub-atomic particles and their relative masses and charges, atomic number and mass number, isotopes and their identical chemical properties, and the determination of relative atomic mass from mass spectra.

Names and formulae of common ions, binary and polyatomic compounds, the use of oxidation numbers in naming, and the construction of balanced full and ionic equations including state symbols.

Electron configuration in shells, sub-shells and orbitals, ionic, covalent (including dative) and metallic bonding, electronegativity and bond polarity, electron-pair repulsion and molecular shapes, and the properties of the four crystal structures.

Oxidation numbers and the rules for assigning them, oxidation and reduction as loss and gain of electrons, oxidising and reducing agents, and the construction of half-equations and overall redox equations.

Dynamic equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle and the effect of concentration, pressure and temperature, the role of a catalyst, the equilibrium constant Kc for homogeneous equilibria, and the compromise conditions used in industry.

Enthalpy and standard enthalpy changes, exothermic and endothermic reactions, calorimetry and the q = mcDeltaT equation, average bond enthalpies, and Hess's law including formation and combustion cycles.

Group 2 reactivity and reducing power, reactions of Group 2 elements and their oxides and hydroxides, the halogens as oxidising agents, halide displacement, disproportionation of chlorine, and tests for halide ions.

The periodic table arranged by atomic number into periods and groups, the s, p and d blocks, and the periodic trends in atomic radius, first ionisation energy and melting point across Periods 2 and 3.

Qualitative tests for carbonate, sulfate, halide and ammonium ions, the correct sequence of tests to avoid interference, and the observations and ionic equations for each test.

Collision theory, the effect of concentration, pressure, surface area and temperature on rate, the Boltzmann distribution and activation energy, and the action of catalysts including the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.

Classification and properties of alcohols (hydrogen bonding), combustion, oxidation by acidified dichromate (primary to aldehyde and carboxylic acid, secondary to ketone, tertiary not oxidised), dehydration to alkenes, and substitution to haloalkanes.

Structure and bonding of alkanes (sigma bonds, tetrahedral carbon), boiling-point trends, complete and incomplete combustion, pollutants, and free-radical substitution with halogens (initiation, propagation, termination).

Structure and bonding of alkenes (sigma and pi bonds, trigonal planar carbon), E/Z isomerism, electrophilic addition (hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides and steam), Markownikoff's rule, and addition polymerisation.

Formulae (empirical, molecular, general, structural, displayed and skeletal), homologous series and functional groups, IUPAC nomenclature, and isomerism (structural and E/Z stereoisomerism with Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority).

Polarity of the carbon-halogen bond, nucleophilic substitution (with hydroxide, cyanide and ammonia), the trend in hydrolysis rate with carbon-halogen bond enthalpy, elimination to alkenes, and the role of CFCs in ozone depletion.

Planning multi-step synthesis routes between functional groups using practical techniques (reflux, distillation, purification), and the analytical techniques of infrared spectroscopy (functional-group absorptions) and mass spectrometry (molecular ion and fragmentation).

The Bronsted-Lowry model and conjugate pairs, pH and the ionic product of water Kw, the acid dissociation constant Ka and pKa for weak acids, buffer action and pH, titration curves, and indicator choice.

Entropy as a measure of disorder, calculating entropy change of reaction, and the Gibbs free energy equation to decide feasibility and find the temperature at which a reaction becomes feasible.

The equilibrium constant Kc in terms of concentrations and Kp in terms of partial pressures and mole fractions, calculations from equilibrium amounts, and the effect of temperature and catalysts on the constant.

Lattice enthalpy and its determination by Born-Haber cycles, the enthalpy changes involved (formation, atomisation, ionisation, electron affinity), enthalpies of solution and hydration, and the effect of ionic charge and radius.

Orders of reaction and the rate equation, the rate constant and its units, concentration-time and rate-concentration graphs, half-life, the rate-determining step, and the Arrhenius equation.

Redox half-equations, standard electrode potentials measured against the standard hydrogen electrode, cell notation and standard cell potential, predicting feasibility, and storage and fuel cells.

Definition and electron configurations of transition elements (including the chromium and copper exceptions), complex ions, ligands and shapes, ligand substitution with colour changes, precipitation reactions, the origin of colour, and catalysis.

The delocalised model of benzene and the evidence for it, the stability of the ring, and the electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene (nitration, halogenation and Friedel-Crafts acylation).

Aldehydes and ketones, oxidation of aldehydes, reduction with sodium tetrahydridoborate, nucleophilic addition of hydrogen cyanide, and the tests for carbonyl compounds (2,4-DNPH, Tollens' reagent and Fehling's solution).

Acidity of carboxylic acids and their reactions with metals, alkalis and carbonates; esterification and ester hydrolysis (acid and alkaline); and the reactions of acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides.

Chromatography (thin-layer with Rf values and gas chromatography with retention times), carbon-13 and proton NMR spectroscopy (chemical shift, integration and the n+1 splitting rule with TMS reference), and combining analytical techniques to identify structures.

Amines and their basicity and preparation, amino acids and the amide link, optical isomerism and chirality, condensation polymers (polyesters and polyamides), carbon-carbon bond formation using nitriles, and multi-step organic synthesis.