What did Raine et al. (1997) find about the brains of murderers, and why is it the classic evidence for the biological approach?
Classic research for the biological approach: Raine et al. (1997), Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Aim, method, results, conclusions and evaluation.
An Eduqas A-Level Psychology answer to the classic biological research, Raine et al. (1997), on brain abnormalities in murderers using PET scans. Covers the aim, the quasi-experiment with NGRI participants, the PET findings, conclusions about brain dysfunction and violence, and a balanced evaluation.
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What this dot point is asking
Raine et al. (1997) is the classic research evidence for the biological approach in Component 1. You must know its aim, method, results and conclusions, evaluate it, and explain how it supports the biological approach's assumption that brain structure and function underlie behaviour.
The answer
Aim and method
The independent variable (NGRI murderer or not) was not manipulated, so this is a quasi-experiment rather than a true experiment.
Results and conclusions
Evaluation
- Scientific method. PET imaging is objective and the sample was large and carefully matched, giving reliable, replicable evidence.
- Real-world relevance. Informs the understanding and explanation of violent behaviour.
- Correlation not cause. As a quasi-experiment it cannot prove the brain differences caused the violence; other factors (childhood abuse, environment) could cause both.
- Generalisability. The sample is a very specific group (NGRI murderers), so findings may not apply to all violent offenders.
- Ethical and social concerns. Using scans to explain crime raises issues about responsibility and labelling.
Examples in context
Example 1. Why this anchors the biological approach. The study directly tests the biological assumptions that brain structure (localisation) and activity underlie behaviour: reduced prefrontal activity maps onto poor impulse control, and abnormal limbic activity maps onto emotional regulation. This is why Eduqas uses it as the classic evidence for the biological approach.
Example 2. The link to Component 3 criminal behaviour. Raine's findings feed directly into biological explanations of criminal behaviour, one of the Component 3 behaviours: reduced prefrontal functioning is used to explain impulsive, violent offending. Comparing the explanation here with social explanations of crime shows the nature-nurture tension the exam rewards.
Try this
Q1. Name the brain-imaging technique used by Raine et al. [1 mark]
- Cue. PET (positron emission tomography), which tracks glucose metabolism to measure regional brain activity.
Q2. State two brain regions in which the NGRI group differed from controls. [2 marks]
- Cue. Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex and the corpus callosum (and asymmetrical activity in the amygdala, thalamus or hippocampus).
Q3. Explain one reason Raine cannot claim brain dysfunction causes violence. [2 marks]
- Cue. It is a quasi-experiment with no manipulated IV, so confounds such as childhood abuse could cause both the brain differences and the violence; the data are correlational.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of WJEC Eduqas exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
Eduqas 20198 marksDescribe the method and results of Raine et al.'s (1997) study of brain abnormalities in murderers. [8 marks]Show worked answer →
A description item testing method and results (AO1).
Method: a quasi-experiment using PET (positron emission tomography) scans. The experimental group was 41 people charged with murder or manslaughter who had pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI), matched with 41 controls on sex and age (and schizophrenics were matched with schizophrenic controls). Participants performed a continuous performance task while a glucose tracer was tracked, so brain activity could be measured in specific regions. The independent variable (being an NGRI murderer or not) was not manipulated.
Results: the NGRI group showed reduced glucose metabolism (activity) in the prefrontal cortex, the corpus callosum, and asymmetrical activity in the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus (lower on the left, higher on the right) compared with controls. There were no differences in some other areas.
Markers reward the PET method, the matched NGRI versus control design, the continuous performance task, and the key regional differences (reduced prefrontal activity, abnormal limbic and callosal activity).
Eduqas 202112 marksEvaluate Raine et al.'s (1997) study. [12 marks]Show worked answer →
A balanced evaluation (AO3) reaching a judgement.
Strengths: it used an objective, scientific brain-imaging method (PET) with a large, carefully matched sample, giving reliable, replicable evidence; and it had real-world relevance to understanding and explaining violent behaviour.
Weaknesses: as a quasi-experiment it cannot establish cause and effect, so the brain differences may not have caused the violence (other factors, such as childhood abuse or social environment, could explain both); the sample was a very specific group (NGRI murderers), so findings may not generalise to all violent offenders; and there are clear ethical and social concerns about using brain scans to explain or excuse crime.
A strong answer concludes that the study provides strong correlational evidence linking brain dysfunction to violence but cannot prove causation and must be applied cautiously. Markers reward developed points with a judgement.
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Sources & how we know this
- Eduqas GCE A Level in Psychology (A290) specification — Eduqas (2015)