Why did the Cold War begin, and how do historians' interpretations of responsibility for it differ?
The interpretations element of Paper 1: how to read, contextualise and weigh extracts from historians, using the historiography of the origins of the Cold War (orthodox, revisionist and post-revisionist schools).
An Edexcel A-Level History Paper 1 guide to the Section C interpretations question, using the origins of the Cold War as a worked example. Explains the orthodox, revisionist and post-revisionist schools, how to analyse extracts from historians, and how to weigh competing interpretations with own knowledge to reach a judgement that earns Level 5 on AO3.
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What this dot point is asking
Paper 1 ends with a Section C interpretations question: you are given two extracts from historians and must weigh how convincing the stated view is in the light of those differing interpretations, using your own knowledge. The question targets AO3 (analysis and evaluation of interpretations). This page teaches the skill through the classic historiography of the origins of the Cold War.
The answer
What the question tests (AO3)
The three schools on the origins of the Cold War
- Orthodox (1940s to 1950s). The Cold War was caused by Soviet expansionism and Stalin's breaking of the Yalta agreements; the West reacted defensively. Writers such as Herbert Feis and Arthur Schlesinger Jr argued the USSR's ideological drive and its takeover of Eastern Europe forced containment on a reluctant United States.
- Revisionist (1960s to 1970s). Shaped by the Vietnam era, writers such as William Appleman Williams and Gabriel Kolko stressed US economic imperialism, the atomic monopoly and the Truman Doctrine, arguing American capitalism provoked Soviet insecurity.
- Post-revisionist (1970s onward). John Lewis Gaddis (The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1972; We Now Know, 1997) stressed mutual misperception and the structural power vacuum after 1945; both superpowers contributed, though Gaddis's later work, using Soviet archives, placed more weight on Stalin's personality.
Why historians differ
Historians reach different views because they ask different questions, emphasise different evidence (the opening of Soviet archives after 1991 reshaped the debate), and write in different political contexts (the Cold War consensus of the 1950s versus the disillusionment of the Vietnam years). Recognising the basis of a disagreement is central to evaluating it.
How to answer an extracts question
- Identify the argument of each extract in one precise sentence, quoting a key phrase.
- Deploy own knowledge to support and to challenge each view (the Berlin Blockade, the Marshall Plan, the Czech coup, Yalta and Potsdam).
- Compare and judge which extract is more convincing for the stated view, and explain why, with evidence.
Examples in context
The decisive habit is to keep returning to the extracts' own words. A free-standing essay on the Cold War, however accurate, scores poorly because it does not evaluate the interpretations the question sets.
Try this
Q1. In the light of differing interpretations, how convincing do you find the view that mutual misperception, rather than the deliberate aggression of either side, best explains the origins of the Cold War? [20 marks]
- What the marker wants. An AO3 essay engaging two extracts, deploying the post-revisionist case (Gaddis, the power vacuum) against orthodox and revisionist readings, supported with dated evidence and a judgement on the stated view.
Q2. What does the revisionist school argue about the origins of the Cold War? [2 marks]
- Cue. That US economic power, the atomic monopoly and policies such as the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan provoked Soviet insecurity and helped cause the conflict.
Exam-style practice questions
Practice questions written in the style of Pearson Edexcel exam questions on this dot point, with worked answer explainers. The year tag is the paper they imitate, not the source.
Edexcel 201820 marksIn the light of differing interpretations, how convincing do you find the view that the USSR was chiefly responsible for the outbreak of the Cold War in the years 1945 to 1949?Show worked answer →
The Section C interpretations question gives two extracts (Extract 1 and Extract 2) and is marked on AO3 (analysis and evaluation of interpretations). Level 5 requires you to engage the precise wording of the extracts, deploy own knowledge to test each, and judge.
Orthodox (USSR to blame). Soviet expansion across Eastern Europe (rigged Polish elections 1947, the Czech coup February 1948), the breaking of the Yalta and Potsdam promises of free elections, and the Berlin Blockade (June 1948 to May 1949) support this extract.
Revisionist (USA to blame). US economic power, the atomic monopoly (Hiroshima August 1945), the Truman Doctrine (March 1947) and the Marshall Plan can be read as aggressive provocations of Soviet insecurity.
Level 5 weighs which extract is more convincing for the stated view, supports and challenges each with dated evidence, and reaches a substantiated judgement engaging the extracts directly.
Edexcel 202220 marksIn the light of differing interpretations, how convincing do you find the view that the Marshall Plan was primarily an act of American economic self-interest?Show worked answer →
A Section C AO3 question on two historian extracts. Markers reward direct engagement with each extract's argument, not a general essay on the Marshall Plan.
Supporting the view. The Marshall Plan (announced June 1947, around $13 billion to 1951) opened European markets to US exports and bound recipients to American economic influence, fitting the revisionist reading.
Challenging the view. The Plan can also be read as a defensive response to European collapse and the perceived Soviet threat, fitting the orthodox and post-revisionist readings; the USSR was offered aid and refused.
Level 5 tests both extracts against own knowledge, weighs how convincing each is for the stated view, and judges, quoting and analysing the extracts' exact claims.
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Sources & how we know this
- Pearson Edexcel A-Level History (9HI0) specification — Pearson Edexcel (2015)